西方語言學流派漫談-北京理工大學.ppt

西方語言學流派漫談 Schools of Linguistics: some random thoughts,北京外國語大學 中國外語教育研究中心 劉潤清,為何要講流派問題？,我主張，進入一個研究領域時， 第一要宏觀，第二要對思想（ideas) 感興趣。 宏觀：做研究，別一下扎到一個小領域、小題目里去，那樣會見木不見林。了解宏觀背景，讓你不失迷方向。 對思想、哲學理念感興趣，比只對純技術性的東西感興趣，更有意義。技術是手段，提高認識是追求。,1. 區(qū)分流派與分支,1.1 流派多指思潮, 有代表人物, 代表著作, 主要觀點, 研究方法, 盛行時代,有其影 響, 往往有歷史視角。（它未必對領域中的諸多問題都有論述。） Schools refer to trends of thought, with their representative figures, works, unique ideas, methods and influence on later development; a diachronic perspective.,區(qū)分流派與分支,1.2 分支多指領域, 研究范圍, 也有經典著作, 有影響的人物, 多用共時觀點。可能多個流派都對它有過貢獻。 (Branches refer to areas of study, with their classics, and influential figures; often a synchronic perspective.),1. 區(qū)分流派與分支,1.3 歷史視角和共時視角 一起 可以畫出一個十字, 像一個坐標. The diachronic and synchronic perspectives will form a cross, which like a coordinate.,Distinction between Schools and Branches,1. 區(qū)分流派與分支,1.2 語言學的分支: Branches: 從內部分:語音學, 音系(位)學, 詞匯學, 形態(tài) 學, 句法學, 語義學, 語用學(?) Distinction from within: phonetics, phonology, lexicology, morphology, syntax, semantic, pragmatics (?),1. 區(qū)分流派與分支,從外部分: 心理語言學, 社會語言學, 計算語 言學, 神經語言學, 文化語言學, 人類語言 學，語料庫語言學等。 Distinction from without: psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, computation linguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, cultural linguistics, corpus linguistics, etc.,1. 區(qū)分流派與分支,大分類: 理論語言學, 應用語言學 Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.,1. 區(qū)分流派與分支,1.3 語言學流派: 傳統(tǒng)語法 (600BC18世紀)traditional grammar; 歷史語言學(19世紀100年) historical linguistics; 現代語言學開端(索緖爾, 20世紀初) the beginning of modern linguistics;,1. 區(qū)分流派與分支,歐洲功能主義(20世紀20-50)European functionalism 倫敦學派(194050)The London School; 系統(tǒng)功能語法(1960現在) Hallidays Systemic-functional grammar,1. 區(qū)分流派與分支,美國結構主義語言學(193050) American structuralism 美國轉換生成語法(1957現) Chomskys Generative Grammar 認知語言學 （today） Cognitive linguistics,2. 宏觀區(qū)分流派 A More Macro Distinction,2.1 形式派 注重分析語言的形式, 結構, 成分和成分的分布, 對語言進行形式描寫和描寫的形式化, 考慮語言的心理性. The formal school: emphasize the formal, structural aspects of L, and distribution of elements; formalize the description of L; a psychological perspective.,2. 宏觀區(qū)分流派 A More Macro Distinction,2.2 功能派 注重分析語言的功能, 分析不同層次上的成分的語義功能, 認為功能決定形式, 考慮語言的社會性. The functional school: emphasize the functional nature of L; analyze the semantic function of elements on all levels; function determines form; a sociolinguistic perspective.,2. 宏觀區(qū)分流派 A More Macro Distinction,2.3 兩派的區(qū)別 形式主義者認為語言是心理現象;功能主義者說語言是社會現象. The formal camp say language is a psychological fact; the functional camp say language is a social fact.,2. 宏觀區(qū)分流派 A More Macro Distinction,2. 形式主義者說語言普遍現象是人類生理遺傳;功能主義者說是來自社會對語言的普遍運用. The formal camp say linguistic universals are mens biological inheritance; the functional camp say language similarities come from the common use of language.,2. 宏觀區(qū)分流派 A More Macro Distinction,3.形式主義者 說兒童習得語言是人類的內在能力;功能主義者說這是兒童交際的需要和能力的發(fā)展. The formal camp say that children are born with the ability to acquire language; the functional camp say that language learning comes from childrens needs and development.,2. 宏觀區(qū)分流派 A More Macro Distinction,4.形式主義者把語言當成獨立系統(tǒng)研究；功能主義者把語言放在社會功能中研究。 The formalists regard language as an independent system; the formalists study language in the social context by referring to its social function.,2.宏觀區(qū)分流派,2.4 韓禮德: 20世紀下半葉的基本對立陣營不是結構主義與生成語法。最根本的兩大陣營是：以組合關系為取向的形式派（形式語法， 源于邏輯和哲學），和以聚合關系為取向的功能派（功能語法， 源于修辭和人種學）。形式派把語言看成一系列的結構， 這些結構之間可以找出固定的關系（所以才有轉換一說）；他們強調語言的普遍性，把語法（他們稱之為句法）看成是語言的基礎（所以語法是任意的），因此語法圍繞著句子而展開。,2.宏觀區(qū)分流派,Halliday: The basic opposition is not that between structural and generative grammars . The more fundamental opposition is between those that are primarily symtagmatic in orientation (by and large the formal grammars, with their roots in logic and philosophy),2.宏觀區(qū)分流派,and those that are primarily paradigmatic (by and large the functional ones, with their roots in rhetoric and ethnography). The former interpret a language a list of structures, among which, regular relationships may be established,2.宏觀區(qū)分流派,(hence the introduction of transformation); they tend to emphasize universal features of language, to take grammar (which they call syntax) as the foundation of language (hence the grammar is arbitrary), and so to be organized around the sentence.,2.宏觀區(qū)分流派,功能派把語言看成是一個關系網，其基本關系借助于結構加以實現；他們強調語言之間的不同點，把語義看做語言的基礎（所以語法是自然的），因此語法是圍繞著文本或語篇而展開的。兩個陣營之間有許多交叉，也有互相借鑒， 但從思潮上講二者是很不同的，兩大陣營開展對話也很困難。,2.宏觀區(qū)分流派,The functionalists interpret language as a network of relations, with structures coming in as the realization of these relationships; they tend to emphasize variables among languages, to take semantics as the foundation (hence the grammar is natural), and so to be organized around the text, or discourse.,2.宏觀區(qū)分流派,There are many cross-currents, with insights borrowed from one to the other; but they are ideologically fairly difficult and it is often difficulty to maintain a dialogue.,2.宏觀區(qū)分流派,韓禮德還說：功能語法屬于應用研究，形式語法屬于純理論研究；功能語法更近于修辭， 形式語法更近于邏輯；功能語法研究實際語言能力，形式語法研究理想的語言能力；功能語法研究文本/語篇，形式語法研究句子。功能語法把文本分析看做行為方式，語言理論是成事之手段。,2.宏觀區(qū)分流派,Halliday: In general the functional approach leans towards the applied rather than the pure, the rhetorical rather than the logical, the actual rather the ideal, the functional rather than the formal, the text rather than the sentence.,2.宏觀區(qū)分流派,The emphasis is on text analysis as a mode of action, a theory of language as a means of getting things done. 研究流派更具理論價值: 從哲學上看, 如何看待世界就如何看待語言;從心理學上看, “白板說” 和“內容說”也區(qū)分兩派;從方法論上看, 歸納法, 演繹法, 證實，證偽，還是二者結合等,也有不同。,3. 流派與分支的價值 Significance of the Two,Its more theoretically significant to study schools; they involve philosophy, psychology (blank slate/content approach), and methodology (induction， deduction，verification, falsification, abduction).,3. 流派與分支的價值 Significance of the Two,研究分支更具使用價值: 語言內部分支也有理論價值, 但有更多的使用價值;外部分支既有理論價值,又有應用價值. Its more significant in practice to study the various branches of linguistics, not without theoretical significance.,3. 流派與分支的價值 Significance of the Two,任何學科內, 不應該只注重應用研究, 基礎理論研究十分重要。基礎研究費時費力，見效慢；應用研究見效快。 In any discipline we should take seriously both basic, pure research and applied research. Both are useful and important.,5. 流派介紹 ：傳統(tǒng)語法,4.1 傳統(tǒng)語法: 從希臘語到拉丁語, 再從拉丁語到其他歐洲語言;注重語音和詞匯, 句法很少, 以教學語法為主,多為規(guī)定性語法,不是描寫性語法;影響很大,時間很長; 其貢獻是創(chuàng)造了描寫工具(其術語今天還在使用). Traditional Grammar: focus on phonetics and words; school grammar, prescriptive; influential; its terms still in use today.,5. 流派介紹：歷史語言學,4.2 歷史語言學: 語言比較,語言歷史,語言譜系, 語音變化規(guī)律;其后期的新語法學派為避免20世紀培養(yǎng)了人才;歷史語言學為避免20世紀現代語言學開端鋪平道路。 Historical Linguistics: language comparison, family trees of languages; laws of sound change; Neogrammarians; paved the way for modern linguistics in the 20th century.,5. 流派介紹：歷史語言學,5. 流派介紹：歷史語言學,6. 流派介紹：現代語言學開端,4.3 索緒爾: 現代語言學鼻祖;區(qū)分了語言和言語,歷時語言學和共時語言學, 語言符號的任意性,所指和能指都是任意的; 語言是一個系統(tǒng), 一個關系系統(tǒng)(在系統(tǒng)中的位置決定其意義); 語言是符號學中最典型的代表.其理論影響深遠. Saussure: father of modern linguistics; language/speech; arbitrariness of language; synchronic/diachronic; signifier/signified; system of signs,德克海姆 E. Durkheim,佛洛依德 Sigmund Freud,6. 流派介紹：現代語言學開端,德國哲學家 Ernst Cassirer把索緒爾與伽利略相提并論: “In the whole history of science there is perhaps no more fascinating a chapter than the rise of the new science of linguistics. In its importance it may very well be compared to the new science of Galileo, which in the 17th century, changed our whole concept of the physical world.”,7. 流派介紹：早期功能學派,4.4 歐洲功能學派: 布拉格學派,哥本哈根學派;貢獻:音位學,已知信息和待傳信息;主位和述位;主題和評述;影響大;功能主義鼻祖。 Functional schools in Europe: the Prague School ; the Copenhagen School: contribution to phonology; given/new information; theme/rheme; topic/comment; influential around 1920-40,8. 流派介紹 ：美國結構主義,4.5 美國結構主義: 博厄斯, 薩裴爾,布龍菲爾德, 哈利斯,豪克特等; 薩裴爾-沃爾夫假說, 又稱語言相對論;哲學上的實證主義和 “百板說”; 心理學上的行為主義; American structuralism: F. Boaz, E. Sapir, Leonard Bloomfield, Z. Hariss, C. Hockett, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, empiricism in philosophy, blank slate, behaviorism in psychology.,博厄斯 Boaz,薩佩爾 Sapir,L. Bloomfield,布龍菲爾德,馮特 Wundt,華生 Watson,斯金納 Skinner,8. 流派介紹：美國結構主義,嚴格的 “發(fā)現程序”,二分法,不問意義和功能,看結構分布; 重證據,不看主觀印象;教學上的 “聽說法”影響外語教學幾十年.豪克特的確16個語言設計特征十分重要. Rigid procedure of discovery, binary cutting, ignore meaning; distribution of elements; emphasis on evidence than impression; audio-lingual method in teaching; design features of language.,9. 流派介紹：喬姆斯基:生成語法,4.5 美國的喬姆斯基:生成語法 語言上的一場革命;其語言觀, 哲學上的唯理主義,心理學上認知主義; 語言與生俱來,強調大腦的初始狀態(tài);目標是揭示語言本質和人類本質; Chomskys Generative grammar: a revolution; rationalism in philosophy; cognitive psychology; language is innate; initial state of mind; reveal nature of L to show nature of man.,喬姆斯基 Chomsky,流派介紹：喬姆斯基:生成語法,萊茵斯評喬氏：“Chomkys position is not only unique within linguistics at the present time, but is probably unprecedented in the whole history of the subjectRight or wrong, Chomskys theory of grammar is undoubtedly the most dynamic and influential, and no linguist who wishes to keep abreast of current developments in his subject can afford to ignore Chomskys theoretical pronouncements.” John Lyons,Chomsky,“It seems plain that language acquisition is based on the childs discovery of what from a formal point of view is a deep and abstract theory a generative grammar of his language many of the concepts and principles of which are only remotely related to experience by long and intricate chains of the unconscious quasi-inferential steps. A consideration of the character of the grammar that is acquired, the,Chomsky,degenerate quality and narrowly limited extent of the available data, the striking uniformity of the resulting grammar, and their independence of intelligence, motivation, and emotional state, over wide range of variation, leave little hope that much of the structure of the language can be learned by an organism initially uninformed as to its general character.(- Chomsky 1965：Aspects of the theory of syntax),“顯然，語言習得基于兒童發(fā)現從形式角度看是一種深奧、抽象的理論即母語的一種生成語法。這種語法的許多概念和原則必須經過漫長、復雜的無意識的亞推理過程，才與經驗稍稍相連。 稍微想一想兒童習得的語法性質，他接觸到的語料質量之差和范圍之小，兒童習得語言與智力、動機、情緒毫無關系，而且他們的環(huán)境因素千差萬別，最后所得語法的卻驚人地相似，讓我們很難相信，一個對語法沒有大致了解的有機體，能夠學到這麼多語言結構知識?！?喬氏，1965 句法理論面面觀,9. 流派介紹：喬姆斯基:生成語法,語言描寫力求形式化;句法獨立,句法為核心;觀察充分, 描寫充分, 解釋充分;其影響深遠,令人耳目一新;喬氏理論對哲學,心理學,計算機語言,形式化等, 都有貢獻. To formalize the description of L; independence of syntax; emphasis on explanatory power; contribution to philosophy, psychology, computer science; biology; bio-linguistics,Chomsky:語言天賦,In “The Architecture of Language” (2002:50) he wrote: “Lots of people reject the proposal that language is innate but nobody answers them. The reason why nobody answers is that their arguments would make no sense. Theres no way to answer them. To say that language is not innate is to say that there is no difference between my granddaughter, a rock and a rabbit. In other words, if you take a rock, a rabbit and,Chomsky：語言天賦,my granddaughter and put them in a community where people are talking English, theyll all learn English. If people believe that, then they believe that language is not innate. If they believe that there is a difference between my granddaughter, a rabbit and a rock, then they believe that language is innate.”,Chomsky:語言教學,Chomsky (1988)” teaching should not be compared to filling a bottle with water but rather to helping a flower to grow in its own way. As any good teacher knows, the methods of instruction and range of material covered are of small important as compared with the success in arousing the natural curiosity of the students喚起學生的自然好奇心 and stimulating their interest in,Chomsky：語言教學,exploring on their own激勵他們去自我探索的興趣. What the students learn passively will be quickly forgotten. What the students discover for themselves when their natural curiosity and creative impulses are aroused not only will be remembered but will be the basis for further exploration and inquiry and perhaps significant intellectual contributions.,10. 流派介紹：系統(tǒng)功能語言學,4.6倫敦語言學派: 英國有悠久語言研究傳統(tǒng)，人造語言、速寫、拼法改革等起于英國，著名語音學家丹尼爾瓊斯Daniel Jones 、亨利斯威特Henry Sweet生于這里。 倫敦學派后來成為系統(tǒng)功能語法學派。馬林諾夫斯基, 佛斯, 韓禮德等.意義即使用. 語言環(huán)境決定意義；結構與系統(tǒng)； 語言潛勢和語言實際行為;組合關系和聚合關系；語言功能分類,10. 流派介紹：系統(tǒng)功能語言學,The London School: Britain has a long tradition of language studies. The great phoneticians Henry Sweet， Daniel Jones。 Malinovki, J.R. Firth, M.A.K. Halliday; meaning is use; context determines meaning; emphasis on both structure and system; linguistic potential and actual behavior; paradigmatic/ syntagmatic relations; types of functions of language,Malinovski 馬林諾夫斯基,佛斯 J. R. Firth,M.A.K. Halliday,韓禮德 MAK Halliday,10. 流派介紹：系統(tǒng)功能語言學,語言是許多小系統(tǒng)組成的大系統(tǒng).語言的結構由社會功能所決定.語言的三大功能;兒童語言的七大功能. 在教學上和文體學上都有貢獻. Language is a system of many sub-systems; three macro function of language (ideational, interpersonal, textual function); childrens seven functions; contribution to language teaching and stylistics; popular in China.,語言系統(tǒng),The material process: action and event. The transitivity system及物性系統(tǒng): material process, mental process, relational process, verbal and behavioral process, existential process. The action process: intention process and supervention process. The mental process: internalized process and externalized process.,語言系統(tǒng),The internalized process: 1. perception, 2. reaction and 3. cognition processes. (p.322) There are realization relationships between various levels. The choice of meaning is realized by the choice of form, which in turn is realized by the choice of sounds. What can be done is realized by what can be meant, which is realized by what can be said.,語言功能,Functions of Childrens Language: The instrumental function: to meet his material needs and services;（工具） The regulatory function: to control others behavior;（調節(jié)） The interactional function: to talk with others;（交際） The personal function: to express his feelings;（個人表達）,語言功能,5. The heuristic function: to know about his own surroundings;（探索） 6. The imaginative function: to create surroundings;（想象） 7. The informative function: to provide information for others.（告知） The adults language has to serve many functions, these are gradually reduced to a set of highly coded and abstract functions.,語言功能,Functions of adults language: Ideational function, interpersonal function and textual function.概念功能、人際功能、語篇功能 The Ideational function（ 概念功能）： to convey new information unknown to the hearer. It is the meaning potential, used in all languages. It is to refer to categories of experience of the world.,語言功能,2.The interpersonal function（人際功能）: it embodies all the uses of language to express social and personal relations; the ways the speaker enters into a speech situation and performs a speech act. It is realized by mood語氣 and modality情態(tài).,語言功能,The Textual Function（語篇功能）: Language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living message different from a random list of sentences. “John saw a handbag in a field. John walked across a field and picked up a handbag.John took a handbag to the police station and John handed a handbag to a policeman.”,11. 一個新學派 ：認知語言學,認知語言學: 是不是一個新流派? 還是一個分支? 始于20世紀70年代, 關心語言與心智和大腦的關系, 說語言是認知系統(tǒng)的一部分;認知系統(tǒng)是由感知, 情感,范疇化, 抽象化,和推理等能力組成. 目標不是描寫語言行為,而是解釋引起語言行為的心理結構和心理過程, 揭示語言背后內在的深層規(guī)律. 人物: 喬姆斯基, Talmy, Jackendoff, Langacker, Lakoff, Biewish, Hudson, Fillmore,Talor等.,萊科夫 George Lakoff,萊科夫 George Lakoff,“We are neural beings,“ states Berkeley cognitive scientist George Lakoff. “Our brains take their input from the rest of our bodies. What our bodies are like and how they function in the world thus structures the very concepts we can use to think. We cannot think just anything - only what our embodied brains permit.“,L. Talmy Ph.D.Berkerley Pioneering work In cognitive linguistics,11. 一個新學派 ：認知語言學,I am not if this is a new school or what. People say language and its use are based on our bodily experience and the way to conceptualize it is called cognitive linguistics. It is a new approach to the study of language and mind. Topics include structure of characterization (prototype, metaphor, mental imagery), conceptual interface between syntax and,11. 一個新學派：認知語言學,semantics, the experiential and pragmatic background of language-in-use, and the relationship between language and thought.,11. 一個新流派：認知語言學,認知語言學的理論原則: 語義結構沒有普遍性;語法不獨立; 語法和詞匯沒有意義區(qū)別(符號連續(xù)體). 研究領域: 范疇化, 概念隱喻, 轉喻, 多義性, 擬象性, 語法化等. 跨學科性: 與哲學, 心理學, 人類學, 計算機科學,神經語言學等有關. 有不同學派: 圣地亞哥派,伯克利學派,11. 一個新流派：認知語言學,Principles: semantic structure has no universals; syntax is not independent; syntax and vocabulary form a continuum of symbols, not distinguished in meaning. Areas: characterization, metaphor, polysemy, iconicity, grammatization etc. Highly cross-disciplinary: philosophy, psychology, computer science, neurology, anthropology etc.,塔爾密 Talmys work,Cognitive semantics: 句中的視角： “There are some houses in the valley.” “There is a house every now and then through the valley.” 注意焦點： “The bike is near the house .” “ The house is near the bike.” 動力學： “The ball rolled along the green.” “The ball kept rolling along the green.”,塔爾密 Talmys work,事件的時間劃分：The beacon flashed. The beacon kept flashing. The beacon flashed 5 times in a row. The beacons kept flashing 5 times at a stretch. The beacons kept flashing 5 times at a stretch for 3 hours.,塔爾密 Talmys work,Toward a Cognitive Semantics Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 2000 Volume I Concept Structuring Systems Part 1: Foundations of Conceptual Structuring in Language Ch. 1 The Relation of Grammar to Cognition Part 2: Configurational Structure Ch. 2 Fictive Motion in Language and “Ception“ Ch. 3 How Language Structures Space,塔爾密 Talmys work,Part 3: Attention Ch. 4 The Windowing of Attention in Language Ch. 5 Figure and Ground in Language Ch. 6 Structures that Relate Events Part 4: Force and Causation Ch. 7 Force Dynamics in Language and Cognition Ch. 8 The Semantics of Causation References Index,塔爾密 Talmys work,Volume II Typology and Process in Concept Structuring Part 1: Typological Patterns in the Representation of Event Structure Ch. 1 Lexicalization Patterns Ch. 2 Surveying Lexicalization Patterns Ch. 3 A Typology of Event Integration Ch. 4 Borrowing Semantic Space: Diachronic Hybridization,塔爾密 Talmys work,Part 3: Other Cognitive Systems Ch. 7 The Cognitive Culture System Ch. 8 A Cognitive F