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學(xué)習(xí)資料收集于網(wǎng)絡(luò),僅供參考語(yǔ)言學(xué)戴煒棟 (牟楊譯本的學(xué)習(xí)指南)重要人物匯總1. Ferdinand de Saussure索緒爾the founding father of modern structural linguistics現(xiàn)代結(jié)構(gòu)主義語(yǔ)言學(xué)創(chuàng)始人提出語(yǔ)言language和言語(yǔ)speech的區(qū)別詞的橫組合及縱聚合是其句法理論的重要部分Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic relations is important part of Saussures syntactic theory.2. Noam Chomsky喬姆斯基:the founder of generative grammar生成語(yǔ)法創(chuàng)始人提出關(guān)于語(yǔ)言能力competence 與 語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用performance的區(qū)分概念 1957年提出轉(zhuǎn)換生成語(yǔ)法:Transformational-Generative grammar簡(jiǎn)作TG Grammar的研究模式 普遍語(yǔ)法的概念3Daniel Johns瓊斯:the most famous system of Cardinal vowels最有名的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)元音系統(tǒng)4M.A.K. Halliday英國(guó)語(yǔ)言學(xué)家韓禮德:系統(tǒng)功能語(yǔ)法Systemic-functional Grammar,與Chomsky提出的轉(zhuǎn)換生成語(yǔ)法:Transformational-Generative grammar相區(qū)分5. Geoffrey Leech利奇:提出語(yǔ)義學(xué)Semantics的七種意義6. C. Morris he R. Carnap美國(guó)哲學(xué)家:將符號(hào)學(xué)Semiotics劃分為三個(gè)分支7. J. Austin 和 J. Searle英國(guó)哲學(xué)家: Speech Act Theory:20世紀(jì)50年代認(rèn)為語(yǔ)言不僅可以用來表述,更可以用來“做事doing things”,即“to do things with words”8. P.Grice格萊斯美國(guó)哲學(xué)家:合作原則The Cooperative Principles9. Ogden and Richards 奧登和理查茲semantic triangle or triangle of significance語(yǔ)義三角理論p63Chapter one Introduction1.語(yǔ)言學(xué)的定義:對(duì)語(yǔ)言進(jìn)行的科學(xué)研究(the scientific study of language)2.語(yǔ)言學(xué)的范圍 語(yǔ)音學(xué) 音位學(xué) 語(yǔ)言學(xué)內(nèi)部的主要分支 形態(tài)學(xué) 句法學(xué) 語(yǔ)義學(xué) 語(yǔ)用學(xué) 社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)跨學(xué)科分支 心理語(yǔ)言學(xué) 應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué) 規(guī)定性與描寫性 共時(shí)性與歷時(shí)性 言語(yǔ)與文字3.語(yǔ)言學(xué)中的一些重要區(qū)分 語(yǔ)言與言語(yǔ) 語(yǔ)言能力與語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用 傳統(tǒng)語(yǔ)法與現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)4.語(yǔ)言的定義5.語(yǔ)言的識(shí)別特征6.語(yǔ)言的作用術(shù)語(yǔ)雙解1.linguistics(語(yǔ)言學(xué)):Linguistics refers to the scientific study of language.對(duì)語(yǔ)言進(jìn)行科學(xué)研究的學(xué)科。2.general linguistics(普通語(yǔ)言學(xué)):the study of language as a whole.3.phonetics(語(yǔ)音學(xué)):the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.4.phonology(音韻/系/位學(xué)):從功能的角度出發(fā)對(duì)出現(xiàn)在某種特定語(yǔ)言中的語(yǔ)音及其組合、分布規(guī)律進(jìn)行研究的語(yǔ)言學(xué)分支。The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns from function perspective. 5.morphology(形態(tài)學(xué)):研究單詞的內(nèi)部構(gòu)造the internal structure of words6.syntax(句法):研究組詞造句的規(guī)則the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.7.Semantics(語(yǔ)義學(xué)):the study of meaning;對(duì)語(yǔ)言產(chǎn)生的意義的方法的系統(tǒng)研究,以研究詞義和句義為主its the systemic studies on the meaning-producing mechanism in languages, including words and sentences meaning 8.pragmatics(語(yǔ)用學(xué)/論): 從語(yǔ)言同使用者之間的關(guān)系出發(fā),研究在實(shí)際交際in real-time communication contexts中影響人們語(yǔ)言使用的各種因素mainly in terms of the relationship between language and language-users。9.sociolinguistics(社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)):10.psycholinguistics(心理語(yǔ)言學(xué)):11.applied linguistics(應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)) 廣義:in a narrow sense:12. descriptive(描寫性): Prescriptive(規(guī)定性):13. Synchronic(共時(shí)性):以某個(gè)特定時(shí)期的語(yǔ)言為研究對(duì)象 Diachronic(歷時(shí)性):研究語(yǔ)言各個(gè)階段的發(fā)展變化,研究語(yǔ)言的歷史發(fā)展規(guī)律14.speech and writing(言語(yǔ)與文字) Langue(語(yǔ)言):指語(yǔ)言系統(tǒng)的整體the whole linguistic system,所有語(yǔ)言使用個(gè)體頭腦15. 中存儲(chǔ)的詞語(yǔ)-形象word-image的總和,這個(gè)整體相對(duì)比較穩(wěn)定。 Parole(言語(yǔ)):指代某個(gè)個(gè)體在實(shí)際語(yǔ)言使用環(huán)境中說出的具體話語(yǔ)actual use of language,是隨時(shí)間和地點(diǎn)變化的一個(gè)動(dòng)態(tài)的、偶然性很大的實(shí)體competence語(yǔ)言能力:指理想語(yǔ)言使用者關(guān)于語(yǔ)言規(guī)則的知識(shí)儲(chǔ)備16.performance語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用:指真實(shí)的語(yǔ)言使用者在實(shí)際場(chǎng)景中的語(yǔ)言使用注與索緒爾的區(qū)別索緒爾著重于從社會(huì)的角度social perspective來研究語(yǔ)言,喬姆斯基則從語(yǔ)言使用者的知識(shí)構(gòu)成the knowledge base of the language users來看待語(yǔ)言,如喬從心理學(xué)的角度來分析語(yǔ)言區(qū)別:17.traditional grammar : 1)Regards the written language as primary 2)Force language gets into aLatin-based frameworkand modern linguistics: 1)Regards the spoken language as primary, not the written 2)Vice versa(3點(diǎn)區(qū)別):18.language(語(yǔ)言)-定義理解及特點(diǎn):19.design features of language語(yǔ)言的識(shí)別特征:design feature識(shí)別特征(定義):特征:arbitrariness(任意性):shu 和Tree都能表示“樹”這一概念;同樣的聲音,各國(guó)不同的表達(dá)方式productivity(能產(chǎn)性):語(yǔ)言可以理解并創(chuàng)造無限數(shù)量的新句子,是由雙層結(jié)構(gòu)造成的結(jié)果(Understand and create unlimited number with sentences)duality(雙重性):語(yǔ)言由聲音結(jié)構(gòu)和意義結(jié)構(gòu)組成(the structure of sounds and meaning)displacement(移位性-不受時(shí)空限制的特征):可以表達(dá)許多不在場(chǎng)的東西,如過去的經(jīng)歷、將來可能發(fā)生的事情,或者表達(dá)根本不存在的東西等cultural transmission(文化傳承性):語(yǔ)言需要后天在特定文化環(huán)境中掌握20.functions of language(語(yǔ)言的作用)第二章Phonology(音韻/系/位學(xué)) Articulatory phonetics(發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué))1.phonetics(語(yǔ)音學(xué)):auditory phonetics(聽覺語(yǔ)音學(xué)) Acoustic phonetics(聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué))了解Spectrographs(頻譜儀) vocal cords(聲帶) the Pharynx(or pharyngeal cavity)咽腔 voicing(濁化)2.organs of speech voiceless(輕音)(發(fā)音器官) the oral cavity口腔(關(guān)于口腔舌頭,見下表) the nasal cavity鼻腔(何時(shí)會(huì)鼻音化)方式器官音ObstructionBack of the tongue (舌后)and velar area(軟腭音) k 、 g Narrow the spaceHard palate(硬腭) and front of tongue(舌前)jObstructionThe tip of the tongue(舌尖) and alveolar ridge(齒齦)t、dPartial obstructionUpper front teeth(前齒上部) and tip of the tongue(舌尖)、ObstructionUpper teeth(上齒)and lower lip(下唇)f、vObstructionLipsp、b3.International phonetic alphabet(IPA)國(guó)際音標(biāo)/國(guó)際語(yǔ)音字母表:19th 末,western scholars feel the need for a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.(IPA 應(yīng)運(yùn)而生)。the basic principle of IPA is using one letter (selected from major European languages ) to represent one speech sound(語(yǔ)音).國(guó)際音標(biāo)圖IPA chart:全稱是International Phonetic Alphabet,由國(guó)際語(yǔ)音協(xié)會(huì)IPA=International Phonetic Association在1888年首次確定.4.Diacritics(變音符):are symbols which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone cant possible do. Broad transcription(寬式標(biāo)音):is the transcription with letter-symbols only.5.兩種標(biāo)音方式:Narrow transcription(嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音):is the transcription with letter-symbols together with Diacritics 6.英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)音的分類(the classification of English speech sounds)英語(yǔ)元音和輔音的本質(zhì)區(qū)別:發(fā)元音(vowel)時(shí)氣流從肺部出來的氣流沒有受到任何阻塞。在輔音(consonants)發(fā)出的過程中氣流受到了這樣或那樣的阻塞。輔音的兩種劃分標(biāo)準(zhǔn):發(fā)音方式(Manners of articulation)、發(fā)音部位(Places of articulation)和【清濁特征】* 按照發(fā)音方式manners of articulation* 完全阻塞輔音complete obstruction/爆破音(塞音)plosives(stops): /p/, /b/ /t/, /d/ /k/, /g/ *擦音fricatives:/f/ /v/ /s/ /z/ /師/ /3/ /6/ /咬舌z/ /h/ *破(塞)擦音affricates:/t/ /d/ *流音liquids : /r/ /l/ *鼻音nasals:/m/ /n/ / *滑音/半元音glides/semivowels:/w/ /j/ 接近輔音approximants 中央流音central 邊流音lateral:* 按照發(fā)音部位places: 唇間音/雙唇音bilabial:/p/ /b/ /m/ /w/ 唇齒音labiodental:/f/ /v/ 齒(間)音dental:/ / / 齒齦音alveolar:/t/ /d/ /s/ /z/ /n/ /l/ /r/ 硬腭音Palatal:/ / /t/ /d/ /j/ 喉音glottal:/h/ 軟腭音velar:/k/ /g/ / 齦腭音alveo-palatal/post-alveolar: 綜合圖表:Voiced/voicelessbilabialLabio-dentaldentalalveolarpalatalvelarglottalstopsvoicelessptkVoicedbdgfricativesvoicelessfshVoicedvzaffricatesvoiceless(t)tVoiced(d)dnasalsVoicedmnliquidsVoicedl; rglidesVoicedw特征:* 清濁特征Voicing 分類:濁輔音voiced consonants 清輔音voiceless consonants 體現(xiàn)形式:聲帶是否震動(dòng)in the vibration of the vocal cords E.g:/p/ 和/d/ * 送氣特征Aspiration articulated with a strong air stream pushing out只有爆破音和破擦音有送氣與否的區(qū)別不造成詞義改變,是非區(qū)別性特征 E.g:/p/ 在please中送氣,在speak中不送氣 * 區(qū)別性特征Distinctive Features 可以用來區(qū)分不同音位(phonetic voicing)如清濁特征,但送氣特征就不是 區(qū)別性特征一般都是雙元Binary的 (+voicing/ -voicing)元音的劃分:the position of the tongue in the mouth舌的位置(即哪一部位處于最高位置)the openness of the mouth嘴張開的程度the shape of the lips唇的形狀rounded圓唇元音包括:后元音中除【a:】外的所有unrounded不圓唇元音,為其他所有。the length of the vowels元音的長(zhǎng)短長(zhǎng)元音,發(fā)音時(shí)喉部處于緊張狀態(tài),又稱緊元音短元音,又稱松元音。根據(jù)第一、二個(gè)劃分標(biāo)準(zhǔn)有下圖: Front central back i: u: i uClose e :Semi-closed :Semi-open a a:open 7.phonology音位學(xué)phonology (音位學(xué)):著重語(yǔ)言的自然屬性physical properties,關(guān)注所有語(yǔ)言中1.1區(qū)分 人可能發(fā)出的所有聲音,是音位學(xué)研究的基礎(chǔ)p22 phonetics(語(yǔ)音學(xué)):著重強(qiáng)調(diào)語(yǔ)音的社會(huì)功能social functions,對(duì)象是某種語(yǔ)言中可以用來組合成詞句的那些語(yǔ)音1.2重要概念1.2.1音素phone:is a phonetic unit or segment(是一個(gè)語(yǔ)音單位或者語(yǔ)音段)1.2.2音位Phoneme:a phonological unit(音位具有辨音功能)在語(yǔ)言中具有區(qū)別表義單位作用的最小語(yǔ)音單位the smallest unit that is capable of distinguishing or contrasting words, E.g: pig 和big中的/p/和/b/就是獨(dú)立的音位。1.2.3音位變體Allophones:沒有區(qū)分表義單位作用的音段(segment) E.g:同樣/s/音,在shoe和she中讀音卻有差別,若把兩個(gè)有差別的/s/音調(diào)換位置,并不會(huì)改變單詞意義,只是有點(diǎn)別扭。所以,這兩音就叫做/s/的音位變體。注: Phoneme和Allophone的區(qū)別:音位具有區(qū)別性,是抽象、理想化的單位,具有系統(tǒng)性;音位變體都屬于同一個(gè)音位,他們共同代表或者源于音位,是音位在實(shí)際環(huán)境中的體現(xiàn)。1.2.4最小語(yǔ)音對(duì)/最小對(duì)立體Minimal Pairs:when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same position in the strings.兩個(gè)詞互相之間的差別只是一個(gè)音段, E.g:pen 和pin就是M-p,可以確定/e/和/i/1.2.5兩種分布關(guān)系 * 對(duì)比性分布Contrastive Distribution 若兩個(gè)音段出現(xiàn)在同一個(gè)語(yǔ)音環(huán)境中而產(chǎn)生了兩個(gè)不同的單詞,則處于對(duì)比性分布關(guān)系。 最小語(yǔ)音對(duì)中的不同音段就是這種關(guān)系。1.2.4中的例子 * 互補(bǔ)性分布Complementary distribution 若兩個(gè)基本相似的音段絕不會(huì)出現(xiàn)在相同的語(yǔ)音環(huán)境中,則它們之間就是互補(bǔ)性分布的關(guān)系。E.g:送氣的p(peak)絕不會(huì)出現(xiàn)在s之后,而不送氣的p(speak)也不會(huì)出現(xiàn)在詞首1.2.6音位對(duì)立phonemic contrast1.3一些音位學(xué)的規(guī)則(注:支持音位模式的規(guī)程都是適用于特定語(yǔ)言的)1.3.1序列規(guī)則sequential rules: there are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, these rules are called*.(在某特定語(yǔ)言中存在支配語(yǔ)音組合的規(guī)則,這些規(guī)則就叫序列規(guī)則)1.3.2同化規(guī)則assimilation rule:the rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar(通過“復(fù)制”序列中音位的特征來使一個(gè)語(yǔ)音同化為另一個(gè),從而使兩個(gè)音素相似)1.3.3省略規(guī)則deletion rule: it tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented(告訴我們一個(gè)拼寫上有表現(xiàn)的語(yǔ)音在什么時(shí)候應(yīng)該省略)1.4超音段特征/超切分特征Suprasegmental features: the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features, these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word and the sentence.(指超出音段層面的語(yǔ)音特征,是指音節(jié)、詞、句子這些單位的音位學(xué)特征) The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation and tone(重音、語(yǔ)調(diào)、聲調(diào))1.4.1重音stress:分為單詞重音和句子重音(注:重音所在的位置可以區(qū)別意義) * 單詞重音:位置固定,可分為三級(jí)零zero重音,次secondary重音,和主要primary重音 * 句子重音:refers to the relative force given to the components of a sentence(給予某個(gè)句子成分的相對(duì)力量)結(jié)構(gòu)重音structural:句語(yǔ)句之間的對(duì)比產(chǎn)生的某一個(gè)單詞重音的變化或某一個(gè)一般不重讀的單詞的重讀,如ThirtTEEN girls and thirty boys中的TEEN重讀強(qiáng)調(diào)重音contrastive:指純粹出于交際需要對(duì)句中的任意部分進(jìn)行強(qiáng)調(diào),句中的任意音節(jié)都可能成為重讀音節(jié)語(yǔ)法重音grammatical:約定俗成的語(yǔ)法成分功能決定的重音,如重讀實(shí)詞,輕讀虛詞等1.4.2音調(diào)/聲調(diào)tone: tones are pitch variations, which are cause by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords(指由聲帶振動(dòng)的不同頻率引起的音高變化)注:音高的變化像音素一樣可以區(qū)別意義。1.4.3音調(diào)intonation:when pitch,stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation(如果音調(diào),重音和音長(zhǎng)與句子而不是單個(gè)的詞聯(lián)系起來,它們就被統(tǒng)稱為語(yǔ)調(diào))第三章 形態(tài)學(xué)morphology: it refers to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.( 研究單詞內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)及其構(gòu)成的規(guī)則)1.open class words(開放性詞)與closed class words(封閉詞類)2. 詞/語(yǔ)素Morpheme:is the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.研究的basic unit,不能再進(jìn)一步分成更小的單位而不破壞或者徹底改變?cè)~匯/語(yǔ)法意義的單位,desire是a morpheme,desir+able就是two morphemes.2.1詞word: the smallest free form found in language. 自由形式free form:is an element that does not have to occur in a fixed position with respect to its neighboring elements.2.2自由詞/語(yǔ)素free morpheme: is a morpheme which can be a word by itself. 可以獨(dú)立出現(xiàn)、獨(dú)立成詞的語(yǔ)素。如girl,rely等. 黏著詞/語(yǔ)素bound morpheme: is a morpheme that must be attached to another one. 必須與其它語(yǔ)素一起出現(xiàn)的語(yǔ)素,詞綴居多。如pre-,-al, dis- 等2.3語(yǔ)素變體Allomorph:is the variant forms of a morpheme.相對(duì)抽象,是語(yǔ)素的實(shí)際體現(xiàn),不改變?cè)~義,但會(huì)在形式上有所變化similar to allophone.如:books, bags, judges,在這三個(gè)詞中s的發(fā)音的不同。3.詞根roots: 單詞的基礎(chǔ),無法再分割成更小的單位。兩類:若詞根是自由語(yǔ)素,則為自由詞根(大部分都是free),否則是黏著詞根(如-pal,-ceive,-tain,-vert).3.1詞綴affix:a letter or sound , or group of letters or sounds, which is added to a word , and which changes the meaning or function of the word. 一個(gè)或一組字母或語(yǔ)音,附加于一個(gè)單詞上并改變其意義與功能。 Affixes are bound forms that can be added詞綴屬黏著形式,附在: a)to the beginning of a word=a prefix 前綴 b)to the end of a word=a suffix 后綴 c)within a word=an infix 中綴4.派生詞/語(yǔ)素derivational morphemes:is a morpheme, when it is conjoined to other morphemes(or words), new words are formed or derived.將它們和其他詞素相連結(jié)可以派生或形成新詞。 曲折詞/語(yǔ)素inflectional morphemes: are bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.這些黏著詞/語(yǔ)素只是語(yǔ)法標(biāo)志,表示時(shí)態(tài)、數(shù)、格等概念。5.構(gòu)詞的形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則/詞素音位規(guī)則 morphological rules of word formation The ways words are formed called morphological rules. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.詞的構(gòu)成方式被稱為形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則,這些規(guī)則決定了詞素怎樣組成為詞。5.1能產(chǎn)性形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則productive morphological rules: the rules that can be used quite freely to form new words.能相當(dāng)自由的用來構(gòu)成新詞的形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則。6.派生法Derivation:p377.復(fù)合法compounds: it forms words by stringing words together.(將詞串起來)。(共有16種復(fù)合法,即以動(dòng)、形容、名、介詞四種相互搭配而成)注意以下規(guī)律: when the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category.若兩詞屬于同一語(yǔ)法范疇,則復(fù)合詞仍屬于該范疇。 如:名+名=名。in many cases, the two words are in different grammatical categories, then the class(范疇) of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound. 若兩詞屬于不同范疇,那么復(fù)合詞的范疇就會(huì)和第二或末尾詞的詞類相同。(但不絕對(duì),有例外,如undertake, uplift)復(fù)合詞通常與非復(fù)合的詞序列的重音有所不同。如 greenhouse與green housethe meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meaning of its parts.形容詞的意義并不總是各部分意義之和。第四章 句法(學(xué))syntax:is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentence.是研究如何支配句子構(gòu)成規(guī)則的一個(gè)語(yǔ)言學(xué)分支。(理解:the internal structure of sentences and the rules etc.)1.范疇 categories:refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.指在一特定語(yǔ)言中執(zhí)行相同或相近功能的一組語(yǔ)言項(xiàng)目,如句子、名詞短語(yǔ)或動(dòng)詞。4.1.1.句法范疇syntactic categories:a fundamental fact about words in all human language is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories. 關(guān)于所有人類語(yǔ)言中的詞,有一個(gè)基本事實(shí),即它們能被組成數(shù)量上相對(duì)較小的類別,稱為句法范疇。4.1.2.傳統(tǒng)語(yǔ)法有八種,即詞性,之后有補(bǔ)充Word-level categories:(1)major lexical categories詞匯范疇 (2)minor lexical categories 次要詞匯范疇(兩者的區(qū)別在于:詞匯范疇常常被假定為中心詞)(注意:這種劃分并不絕對(duì))4.1.3確定詞的范疇的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)p43/中文73meaning意義 jane 和 flower 是人與植物inflection曲折變化 加s/esdistribution分布 名詞與限定詞,動(dòng)詞與助詞4.1.4 phrase短語(yǔ):syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase.(圍繞某一詞范疇構(gòu)成的句法單位) (如某一短語(yǔ)圍繞一名詞構(gòu)成,就是名詞短語(yǔ))有:NP名詞性短語(yǔ); VP動(dòng)詞性短語(yǔ); AP 形容詞性短語(yǔ);PP介詞性短語(yǔ)其中單獨(dú)的如N是詞匯層,NP是短語(yǔ)層。超過一個(gè)詞構(gòu)成的短語(yǔ)通常包含以下部分:標(biāo)志詞specifier+中心詞head+補(bǔ)語(yǔ)complement.2.短語(yǔ)結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則phrase structure rule“PS rule”:such special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.這種對(duì)構(gòu)成短語(yǔ)成分排列進(jìn)行調(diào)節(jié)的特殊類型的語(yǔ)法機(jī)制就稱為*)4.2.1 XP rule 中心詞短語(yǔ)規(guī)則4.2.2 coordination rule 并列規(guī)則Some structure are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or . such phrases are called coordinate structures(并列結(jié)構(gòu)), and this phenomenon is known as coordination(并列關(guān)系). 第五章 語(yǔ)義學(xué)semantics : is the study of meaning.(對(duì)意義的研究)1.關(guān)于意義研究的一些觀點(diǎn):p63the naming theory命名論:最古老的觀點(diǎn)之一是古希臘學(xué)者柏拉圖提出的命名論,認(rèn)為語(yǔ)言學(xué)的形式和符號(hào),即語(yǔ)言中的詞語(yǔ),僅僅標(biāo)記它們所代表的物體。詞匯只是代表物體的名字或標(biāo)記。the conceptualist view概念論:認(rèn)為語(yǔ)言學(xué)形式和所指之間沒有直接聯(lián)系,而是通過思維概念彼此聯(lián)系。contextualism 語(yǔ)境論:認(rèn)為通過與之搭配的單詞來理解一個(gè)詞,通過把單詞看做行為、事件、習(xí)慣,我們的探究就限定在群居生活的客觀事物之上。語(yǔ)境包括:the situational context(時(shí)空語(yǔ)境) and the linguistic context(上下文,語(yǔ)言的搭配)代表人物:J.R. Firth約翰魯伯特弗斯behaviorism 行為論:說話人的話語(yǔ)在聽話人身上引起的反應(yīng)。代表:Bloomfield布龍菲爾德)。2.lexical meaning 詞匯意義sense意義/思:is concerned with the meaning of a linguistic form, collection of all its features, it is abstract and de-contextualize.(是語(yǔ)言形式的所有特征的集合,是抽象的,不與語(yǔ)境相關(guān))。reference所指關(guān)系:means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relation between the linguistic elements and the non-linguistic world of experience.(指語(yǔ)言形式在現(xiàn)實(shí)物質(zhì)世界中所指的事物,是語(yǔ)言成分與經(jīng)驗(yàn)世界之間的關(guān)系)主要的意義關(guān)系major sense relationssynonymy同義關(guān)系polysemy多義關(guān)系homonymy同音異義hyponymy上下義關(guān)系:意義包含的關(guān)系,包容者為上義詞Superordinate,被包容者成為下義詞Hyponym,如animals包含dog、cat等許多antonymy反義關(guān)系3.句子之間的關(guān)系sense relations between sentences4.analysis of meaning第六章 Pragmatics語(yǔ)用學(xué):is a study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.(語(yǔ)用學(xué)是研究某一語(yǔ)言使用者如何利用句子而達(dá)到成功交際)研究如何通過Context來理解和使用語(yǔ)言語(yǔ)用學(xué)研究這些與語(yǔ)言交際相關(guān)的主題包括deixis直指; Speech arts言語(yǔ)行為; indirect language間接語(yǔ)言, structure of conversation會(huì)話 ; politeness禮貌, cross-culture communication跨文化交際 and presupposition預(yù)設(shè).1.幾個(gè)重要概念語(yǔ)用學(xué)Pragmatic: the study of the relationship between signs and their interpreters語(yǔ)義學(xué)Semantics:研究符號(hào)與所代表事物間的關(guān)系the relationship between signs and the things they refer to,主要關(guān)注語(yǔ)言系統(tǒng)中抽象單位的句子;停留于句子層面 ;研究是靜止的、孤立的static and isolated語(yǔ)境context:(John Firth): it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.(由說話人和聽話人共有的知識(shí)構(gòu)成)it determines the speakers use of the language and also the hearers interpretation of what is said.它決定了說話人對(duì)語(yǔ)言的使用和聽話人對(duì)所聽到的話語(yǔ)的解釋。劃分為即時(shí)語(yǔ)境immediate context 和社會(huì)語(yǔ)境social context sentence meaning句子意義utterance meaning話語(yǔ)意義與的區(qū)別在于:前者是no context depending; 后者是content depending2.speech act theory言語(yǔ)行為理論1)the British philosopher John Austin model of speech acts 約翰奧斯汀(它是對(duì)語(yǔ)言交際性質(zhì)的哲學(xué)解釋,意在回答“使用語(yǔ)言的時(shí)候我們?cè)诟墒裁础? constative 述事話語(yǔ):指用于陳述或描述的話語(yǔ),是可以證實(shí)的;/ performatives行事話語(yǔ):不能用于陳述或描述的話語(yǔ),是無法證實(shí)的。locutionary act言內(nèi)行為:語(yǔ)言本身 Illocutionary act言外行為:表達(dá)的真正的意思 Perlocutionary act言后行為:產(chǎn)生的結(jié)果2)Searles classification of speech acts塞爾對(duì)言語(yǔ)行為的劃分(每一種具體行為都有相同的言外之意illoocutionary point,但是它們的強(qiáng)度有所差別)representatives闡述類directives指令類commissives承諾類expressives表達(dá)類:表達(dá)對(duì)存在狀態(tài)的情感或態(tài)度declarations宣告類:通過說出某事帶來立即的變化3.indirect speech acts間接的言語(yǔ)的行為:a traditional way to explain indirect language use is by the mismatch between the basic language forms and their typical communicative functions.Searle proposed the notion of indirect speech act. There are two speech acts simultaneously
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