Academic+Reading+3.docx

Academic Reading 3學術閱讀3Using Interactive Technology to Support Students Understanding of the Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming利用交互技術支持學生對溫室效應和全球變暖的認識Keisha Varma and Marcia C. Linn凱莎瓦爾瑪和馬西婭林恩Introduction介紹1 Although global warming is a popular topic in science classes in most middle and high schools, there is little understanding of the greenhouse effect. Anderson and Wallin (2000) conducted a study focusing on high school students. They found that these students had several different representations of the greenhouse effect. Many confused the greenhouse effect with global warming and described it by listing the causes of global warming. Others confused the greenhouse effect with “the ozone effect” (Anderson and Wallin, 2000). This confusion about the relationship between the greenhouse effect and the ozone effect is common (Francis et al., 1993；Meadows and Wiesenmayer, 1999；Rye et al., 1997). Data from Meadows and Wiesenmayers (1999) study indicate that some students have incorporated this misconception into their knowledge frameworks of global warming and use it to reason about all issues related to the global warming phenomenon. Other work shows that some pre-service teachers also attribute the cause of climate change to the depletion of the ozone layer (Papadimiriou, 2004).雖然全球變暖是大多數(shù)初中和高中科學課的熱門話題，但對溫室效應的理解卻很少。安德森和沃林(2000)進行了一項針對高中生的研究。他們發(fā)現(xiàn)這些學生對溫室效應有不同的表現(xiàn)。許多人把溫室效應與全球變暖混為一談，并把全球變暖的原因列舉出來。還有一些人將溫室效應與“臭氧效應”(安德森和沃林,2000)混為一談。這種混淆關于溫室效應和臭氧層效果之間的關系是很常見的(弗蘭西斯等,1993梅多斯和維森邁爾,1999;賴伊等，1997)。來自梅多斯和維森邁爾(1999)的研究數(shù)據表明，一些學生將這種誤解融入到全球變暖的知識框架中，并將其用于解釋與全球變暖現(xiàn)象有關的所有問題。其他研究表明，一些職前教師還將氣候變化的原因歸咎于臭氧層的損耗(Papadimiriou,2004)。2 Obviously，helping students have a better understanding of greenhouse gases and their impact on the temperature of the Earth is urgent. In the work presented in this paper，a series of activities were conducted around the Global Warming：Virtual Earth（GWVE)curriculum unit. The goal is for students to learn about the role of each concept in the greenhouse effect and to understand how they interact to create the greenhouse effect. The activities also help students understand the relationship between the greenhouse effect and global warming. We measure students representations by analyzing their responses to a series of open-ended questions about the concepts covered in the module.顯然,幫助學生更好地了解溫室氣體,對地球溫度的影響是緊迫的。在本文提供的工作,進行了一系列的活動在全球變暖:虛擬地球(GWVE)課程單元。目的是讓學生了解每個概念在溫室效應中的作用，并了解它們是如何相互作用產生溫室效應的。這些活動還幫助學生了解溫室效應和全球變暖之間的關系。我們通過分析學生對模塊中所涉及概念的一系列開放式問題的回答來測量學生的表現(xiàn)。Methods方法Research design研究設計3 The main research question is，“How does students understanding of the greenhouse effect and global warming change after participating in a technology-enhanced learning environment featuring virtual experiments virtual experiment虛擬實驗，即通過計算機操作的實驗 with an interactive visualization visualization n. 可視化 ？”This research is based on GWVE curriculum unit. In the week-long unit during their science classes，students participate in an eight-question，paper-and-pencil assessment prior to and following participation in the unit，creating a matched sample comparison. A series of matched sample t-tests t-test t檢驗，也稱Student t 檢驗（Students t-test），主要用于樣本含量較小總體標準差未知的正態(tài)分布資料 are used to determine the degree of significance between pre- and post-test performance.主要研究的問題是,“學生如何理解參與技術強化學習環(huán)境特色和交互式可視化虛擬實驗后的溫室效應和全球變暖改變?“這項研究是基于GWVE課程單元。在在科學課上為期一周的單元,學生參與一個8個問題,紙筆評估之前和之后的參與單元,創(chuàng)建一個匹配樣本的比較。通過一系列匹配的樣本t檢驗來確定測試前和測試后性能之間的顯著性。Participants參與者4 Five teachers from three schools on the west coast and two schools in the southeastern US enacted the curriculum unit in their sixth-grade science classes. The teachers each had at least two years of experience using our curriculum units in their instruction. Each teacher received targeted professional development support (Varma et al.，2008). The professional development activities included meetings to introduce the overall Web-based Inquiry Science Environment (WISE) and the GWVE unit. Teachers also received classroom support to help them incorporate the activities in their instruction (Varma et al.，2008). One hundred and ninety sixth-grade students (98 males and 92 females) participated in the unit activities and the pre-/post-assessments.美國西海岸三所學校的五名教師和美國東南部的兩所學校開設了六年級的課程單元。每位教師在教學中都有至少兩年的課程使用經驗。每一位老師收到了有針對性的專業(yè)發(fā)展支持(Varma et al .,2008)。專業(yè)發(fā)展活動包括會議介紹全面的基于網絡的調查科學環(huán)境(WISE)和GWVE單元。教師還得到了教室的支持，幫助他們在教學中融入活動(Varma et al,2008)。一百九十名六年級學生(98名男性和92名女性)參加了單元活動和前/后評估。 Procedure過程5 Students participation began with their individual completion of an eight-question，paper-and-pencil pre-test. Classroom teachers administered the pre-test during the students normal class meetings. The questions，presented in Table 1，were primarily open-ended questions about global warming，the greenhouse effect，and the individual factors that contribute to these phenomena. Following the pre-test，all students worked in pairs to complete the activities and embedded reflection notes in the GWVE unit.學生們的參與開始于他們的個人完成一個8個問題，紙和筆的預測試。課堂上的教師在學生正常的課堂上進行了預測試。這些問題，如表1所示，主要是關于全球變暖、溫室效應以及導致這些現(xiàn)象的個別因素的開放性問題。在預考后，所有學生都成對工作，完成了GWVE單元的活動和嵌入式反思筆記。Table 1 Pre-/Post-test questions表1預處理/測試后的問題 1). Describe how the greenhouse effect happens. Try to make sure that you use the following three terms：1）solar energy，2）infrared energy Infrared energy 紅外線輻射能，and 3）greenhouse gases. 2). What is global warming？ 3). What is the difference between the greenhouse effect and global warming？ 4). Look at the list below and select all of the factors that you think have an effect on global warming.- Acid Rain- Water Vapor - Greenhouse Gases- Clouds- Carbon Dioxide- The Ozone Layer- Solar Energy- Infrared Energy 5). What is the role of albedo albedo n.反照率 in the greenhouse effect？ 6). What is the role of clouds in the greenhouse effect？ 7). What is the role of greenhouse gases in global warming？Be sure to be as detailed as possible when you explain your answer. You can draw a picture to help explain your thoughts.8). Picture A shows a real greenhouse where light from the sun passes through the glass panels and heats the inside. The glass panels of the greenhouse keep the heat energy from escaping. Picture B shows the greenhouse effect that happens on the Earth. Which part of the picture is like the glass of the greenhouse？Circle One. SUN SPACE ATMOSPHERE EARTH Explain your answer.1).描述溫室效應是如何發(fā)生的。試著確保你使用以下三個方面:1)太陽能、2)紅外能量,3)溫室氣體。2)。全球變暖是什么?3)。什么是溫室效應和全球變暖之間的區(qū)別嗎?請看下面的列表，選擇所有你認為對全球變暖有影響的因素。酸雨- - - - -水蒸氣溫室氣體- - - - -云二氧化碳臭氧層太陽能紅外能量5)。在溫室效應反照率的作用是什么?6)。云在溫室效應的作用是什么?7)。什么是全球變暖的溫室氣體的作用?一定要盡可能詳細解釋你的答案。你可以畫一幅圖來解釋你的想法。圖A是一個真實的溫室，陽光透過玻璃面板，加熱內部。溫室的玻璃板使熱能不受熱量的影響。圖B顯示了地球上發(fā)生的溫室效應。哪一部分的圖片就像溫室的玻璃?圓。太陽太空大氣地球解釋你的答案。6 The unit includes six main activities. In the first activity，students view short video clips as an introduction to the global warming phenomenon and calculate their ecological footprint ecological footprint 生態(tài)足跡，即個人對環(huán)境的總體影響using an online ecological footprint calculator (Islandwood，2010). In the second activity, students learn about the Earths energy balance and observe the energy transformation depicted in the visualizations.該單元包括六項主要活動。在第一個活動,學生查看錄像短片介紹全球變暖的現(xiàn)象,并計算其生態(tài)足跡使用在線生態(tài)足跡計算器(Islandwood,2010)。在第二項活動中，學生們了解地球的能量平衡，并觀察在可視化中所描繪的能量轉換。7 In the third activity，students conduct experiments with the visualization to learn about greenhouse gases，clouds and albedo. The fourth activity is a jigsaw jigsaw n. 切塊拼接法 activity in which by conducting experiments half of the students learn about clouds and the other half learn about albedo. Teachers randomly assign student pairs to each topic. Throughout these experimentation and reflection steps，embedded notes prompt students to generate hypotheses，gather evidence，draw conclusions and make connections between new and pre-existing ideas. At the end of the fourth activity，all students participate in an online discussion to share their knowledge as a completion of the jigsaw activity and learn about the factor that they did not investigate. In the fifth activity，students use a more complex visualization to learn about how population levels impact greenhouse gas emissions and global warming. This visualization allows students to manipulate the population growth rate and CO2 emission. The results of their manipulation will show a numerical representation of the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere，the temperature of the Earth and the albedo level. Additionally，there is a graph representing the temperature fluctuations that occur as a result of students manipulations (Tinker，2005). In the final activity，students create a family plan to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and recalculate their ecological footprint based on their planned behavior changes.在第三個活動,學生進行實驗與可視化了解溫室氣體,云層和反照率。第四個活動是一個拼圖活動，通過實驗，一半的學生學習了云，另一半學習了反照率。老師隨機分配學生對每個題目。在這些實驗和反射的步驟,指出嵌入式提示學生生成假設,收集證據,得出結論,使新的和已有的思想之間的聯(lián)系。第四個活動結束時,所有學生參與網上討論分享他們的知識完成拼圖活動,了解他們沒有調查的因素。在第五個活動中,學生使用一個更復雜的可視化學習人口水平如何影響溫室氣體的排放和全球變暖。這種可視化方法可以讓學生控制人口增長率和二氧化碳排放。他們操縱的結果將顯示的數(shù)值表示大氣中溫室氣體的濃度,地球的溫度和反照率水平。此外,有一個圖表示溫度波動發(fā)生由于學生操作(修改,2005)。在最后的活動,學生創(chuàng)建一個家庭計劃減少溫室氣體排放和重新計算生態(tài)足跡基于計劃行為變化。8 Students participated in the unit activities for five one-hour class periods in one week. The curriculum unit was enacted as a part of the teachers normal classroom instruction. The teacher served as the lead instructor. At least one researcher was present in the classrooms to observe the enactment and to assist with technology issues. Following the unit activities, students individually completed a paper-and-pencil post-test comprising the same questions included in the pre-test. The pre-and post-test assessments lasted Approximately 20 minutes each.學生在一周內參加五小時一班的單元活動。課程單元作為教師正常課堂教學的一部分而制定。老師擔任首席教師。至少有一名研究人員在場，以觀察制定和協(xié)助處理技術問題。在單元活動之后，學生們分別完成了考前測試中包含的相同問題的紙筆測驗。測試前后的評估持續(xù)大約20分鐘。Data analysis數(shù)據分析9 The main data were generated from students responses to eight open-ended questions included in the pre-and post-tests. The first three questions assess students understanding of the target phenomena（the greenhouse effect and global warming）at a systemic level. Questions 1 and 2 ask students to describe the greenhouse effect and global warming. Question 3 asks them to describe the difference between the two.主要數(shù)據來自學生對8個開放式問題的回答，這些問題包括在考試前和考試后。前三個問題在系統(tǒng)性水平評估學生的理解目標現(xiàn)象(溫室效應和全球變暖)。問題1和2要求學生描述溫室效應和全球變暖。問題3要求他們描述兩者的區(qū)別。10 Question 4 assesses students alternative ideas about the factors that contribute to global warming. It includes a checklist of eight factors that are possible contributors. Students were asked to “Look at the list below and select all of the factors that you think have an effect on global warming.”Students received a score of one through six based on the number of correct selections. Questions 5，6 and 7 ask students to explain how particular components（albedo，clouds，and greenhouse gases）are involved in the greenhouse effect. The final question is a representation analysis prompt. It asks students to analyze how an actual greenhouse represents the scientific phenomenon, the greenhouse effect. 問題4評估學生關于導致全球變暖的因素的其他觀點。它包括八個因素的清單，這些因素是可能的貢獻者。學生們被要求“看看下面的列表，選擇你認為對全球變暖有影響的所有因素”。學生們根據正確選擇的數(shù)量，獲得了1到6分的分數(shù)。問題5、6和7問學生解釋特定組件(反射率、云層和溫室氣體)參與溫室效應。最后一個問題是一個表示分析提示。它要求學生分析一個實際的溫室是如何代表科學現(xiàn)象的，溫室效應。11 Students responses to all questions except Question 4 were coded using knowledge integration knowledge integration 知識集成，即分散知識的有機整合 scoring rubrics rubric n. 指示；規(guī)則（Table 2）. Each response received a score of zero through five based on the correctness of the expressed ideas and links between the ideas. Each rubric was created based on an analysis of the links present in a fully correct response to each question. 學生應對所有的問題,除了問題4編碼使用知識集成得分評估準則(表2)。每一個反應都是根據表達的想法的正確性和思想之間的聯(lián)系，從0到5的分數(shù)。每個標題都是基于對每個問題的完全正確回答的鏈接的分析而創(chuàng)建的。12 A group of researchers familiar with the curriculum unit design and the knowledge integration framework reviewed the rubrics and the example responses to ensure that the correct criteria would be applied to the data. Twenty percent of the tests were coded by a second researcher for reliability (97%). Discrepant codes were resolved via discussions between the coders. 一組熟悉課程單元設計和知識集成框架的研究人員回顧了題目和示例響應，以確保將正確的標準應用于數(shù)據。百分之二十的測試是由第二名研究人員編寫的，用于可靠性(97%)。有差異的代碼通過編碼者之間的討論得到解決。13 One of the pre- / post-test questions was，“Describe how the greenhouse effect happens. Try to make sure that you use the following three terms：1) solar energy，2) infrared energy，and 3) greenhouse gases.”A complete，well-integrated response includes linked information about solar energy，infrared energy，greenhouse gases，and the Earths temperature. The first three columns in Table 2 show the general sequence of scores and knowledge integration（KI）levels that are used to code students responses to each of the open-ended pre- / post-test questions. This framework is used across all of the pre- / post-test questions except Questions 4. The fourth column lists example Question 1 responses for each KI level. 前置/測試后的一個問題是,“描述溫室效應是如何發(fā)生的。試著確保你使用以下三個方面:1)太陽能、2)紅外能量,3)溫室氣體?！币粋€完整的、完整的反應包括聯(lián)系信息太陽能、紅外能量,溫室氣體,地球的溫度。前三列在表2中顯示分數(shù)和知識集成的一般序列(KI)水平用于代碼學生應對每一個開放式的前/后測試問題。除了問題4之外，該框架適用于所有的前/后測試問題。第四列列出了每個KI級別的示例問題1。Table 2 Example KI rubrics and example student responses to Question 1 “Describe how the greenhouse effect happens.” 表2例子KI 評估準則和學生回答問題1“描述溫室效應是如何發(fā)生的?！盨core分數(shù)KI level KI水平Description描述Example student response例如學生的反應0No answer無應答/1Irrelevant不相干的Students write some text，but do not answer the question.學生寫一些文本，但不回答問題。I dont know what a greenhouse is.我不知道溫室是什么。2Incorrect錯誤的Response is scientificallyincorrect.反應是科學上的錯誤。The greenhouse gases come outfrom the greenhouse and into theatmosphere，which creates thegreenhouse effect. 溫室氣體從溫室氣體排放到大氣中，產生溫室效應。3Partial link部分聯(lián)系Students have relevant and correct ideas，but do not fully elaborate the link between the two in a given context.學生有相關和正確的想法,但并不完全詳盡的一分之二給定的上下文之間的聯(lián)系。The greenhouse gases keep theInfrared radiation（IR）in.溫室氣體使紅外輻射(IR)。4Full link完全聯(lián)系Students elaborate a scientifically valid link between the two ideas relevant to a given context.學生們詳細闡述了與特定上下文相關的兩個概念之間的科學有效聯(lián)系。Too much CO2 builds up，makingthe infrared energy bounce backdown to the Earth and so the temperature gets higher太多的二氧化碳積聚,使得紅外能量反彈到地球的溫度會更高5Complex link復雜的聯(lián)系Students elaborate three or more scientifically valid links among ideas relevant to a given context.學生在與給定的上下文相關的思想中精心設計三個或更科學有效的鏈接。Sunlight heats the Earth，causing it to release IR energy，which then bounces off a greenhouse gas such as CO2 back toward the Earth. This warms the overall temperature.陽光加熱了地球,導致紅外能量釋放,然后反射一種溫室氣體,如二氧化碳回到地球。這會使整個溫度升高。Thy to make sure that you use the following three terms：1）solar energy，2）infrared energy，and3）greenhouse gases.你確保你使用以下三個方面:1)太陽能、2)紅外能量,3)溫室氣體。14 Matched t-test analyses were conducted to measure differences in students understanding prior to and following their participation in the unit activities. For each t-test，Cohens d was calculated to report the effect sizes (Cohen，1992). These data help show how participating in the interactive unit activities changed students understanding of the greenhouse effect and global warming.通過配對的t 檢驗分析來衡量學生在參與單元活動之前和之后的理解上的差異。對于每一個學習任務,科恩的d計算報告的影響大小(科恩,1992)。這些數(shù)據有助于說明參與互動單元活動如何改變學生對溫室效應和全球變暖的認識。Results15 Following participation in the GWVE unit activities，students ideas were more normative and better integrated. Scores from each question were summed to calculate an overall learning score，Mean overall learning scores improved from pre- to post-participation(t (189) =8.66，p.001）. 參與GWVE單元活動后,學生的想法是更規(guī)范,更好的整合。分數(shù)從每個問題總結計算整體學習成績,意味著從測試前到參與整體學習成績提高(t(189)= 8.66,p .001)。16 Responses to individual pre- / post-test questions were analyzed using matched t tests for a more detailed examination of changes in students understanding. See Table 3 for a summary of the analyses. Students performance on the post-test showed improved understanding of the greenhouse effect (t (189)=6.96，p.001）. 對個別前/后測試問題的反應用配對的t檢驗分析，以更詳細地檢驗學生理解的變化。分析的摘要見表3。學生在測試后顯示改善溫室效應的理解(t(189)= 6.96,p .001)。Table 3 pre-/Post-test performance analyses表3預/后測試性能分析Pre-testmean（SD）預測試均值（SD）Post-test Mean（SD）測試后均值（SD）DifferenceMean(SD）差分均值（SD）Effectsize（d）影響尺寸（d）tpItem 1Greenhouse effect溫室效應1.87（1.10）2.73（1.19）86（1.37）.638.66.001Item 2Global warming全球變暖2.38（.97）2.91（.97）53（1.04）.506.96.001Item 3Difference差異1.73（1.06）2.75（1.07）1.02（1.47）.699.52.001Item 4Alternative ideas其他的想法2.43（1.67）3.22（2.08）.79（1.68）.476.47.001Item 5Albedo反照率.74（.76）1.64（1.30）.90（1.45）.628.54.001Item 6Clouds云1.27（1.00）2.24（1.23）.97（1.46）.669.24.001Item 7Greenhouse gases 溫室氣體1.65（1.23）2.46（1.29）.81（1.48）.557.56.001Item 8Atmosphere大氣2.25（1.91）2.52（1.19）.27（1.39）.192.65.001Total KI scoreKI總分17.85（5.41）24.36（6.09）6.51（6.45）1.019.32.00117 Prior to instruction，students had some understanding of the greenhouse effect，but it was generally incomplete or incorrect. For example，one student wrote，“I think the greenhouse effect happens when solar energy is trapped in the stratosphere stratosphere n. 同溫層,”and another wrote, “The solar energy gets stronger and the infrared energy goes away.”Several responded with “I dont know.”O(jiān)n the post-test, students responses included more ideas about the interaction of the key factors. They also had more links between their ideas, indicating that their understanding was more integrated.教學前,學生有一些對溫室效應的理解,但一般都不完整或不正確的。例如,一個學生寫道:“我認為溫室效應發(fā)生在太陽能是困在平流層,”另一個寫道:“太陽能越來越強大和紅外能量消失。幾個人回答說:“我不知道?！痹跍y試后，學生的回答包括了更多關于關鍵因素相互作用的觀點。他們的想法之間也有更多的聯(lián)系，這表明他們的理解更加完整。18 Students responded to “What is global warming？” on the pre-test with incomplete ideas from popular media. S