英語寫作復習提綱

1、Academic writing for PhD students1. introduction 考試格式：先給一個文本，寫出move1、move2、move3的句號，然后再寫一下各個句子的作用，如move1-a等， 見P61例如：XXXXXXXXMove 1: a:1、2、3； b: 4、5Move 2:a:6、7Move 3: a:8、9Function: move 1-a :by showing that the general research area is important. move 1-b: 復習資料：Writing introduction section:Move 1 e

2、stablishing a research territory 確立研究范圍Ø A: by showing that the general research area is important, central, interesting, problematic, or relevant in some way. (optional 可選，即可有可無)Ø B: by introducing and reviewing items of previous research in the area. (obligatory, 必選)：文獻綜述。Move 2: establi

3、shing a niche：說明該研究的必要性Ø A: by indicating a gap in the previous research, raising a question about it, or extending previous knowledge in some way. (obligatory, 必選)Move 3: occupy the nicheØ A: by outlining purposes or stating the nature of the present research.（必選）:has two main variants:l

4、Purposive(P): the author or authors indicate their main purpose or purposes.l Descriptive(D): the author or authors describe the main feature of their research.l Other elements: secondary aims of features; the contribution and value of your research; principle finding（原則，主義等發(fā)現(xiàn)）; an outline of the st

5、ructure of your paper.Ø B: by announcing principal finding（可選）Ø C: by indicating the structure of the RP（可選）2、改錯題（見書P14、15、16、17等處） effective sentence structure: P14-16Unity：一致、同一，例如先后語句的主語、時態(tài)等的統(tǒng)一Coherence：條理性、連貫性Conciseness：簡明扼要，即不要過于啰嗦Emphasis：強調(diào)，重點Variety：變化, variety is the foundation o

6、f sentence style. Apart from variety in sentence length, other variations are variety in sentence beginning, in grammatical structure (simple, complex, compound-complex ), in rhetorical（修辭學）structure (loose松散的，periodic周期性, balanced平衡的), in the elements (words, phrases, clauses從句), and in sentence rh

7、ythms（節(jié)奏，韻律）. correct use of numbers（數(shù)字的正確使用）: P17-19 普通規(guī)則Ø 如果數(shù)據(jù)放在句首，一定要用單詞，不能用數(shù)字：注意如果數(shù)字不能用少于四個單詞表示，則不應放在句首（最重要的規(guī)則，必須遵守）Ø 在寫作中，非特殊數(shù)據(jù)應根據(jù)以下兩個規(guī)則寫為單詞：l 數(shù)據(jù)小于100時，則寫為單詞l 數(shù)據(jù)如果能用一或二個單詞表示，則寫為單詞Ø 當數(shù)據(jù)出現(xiàn)在時間單位前，則應根據(jù)上面的規(guī)則來確定使用數(shù)字或單詞：注意在技術(shù)寫作中，不同過程的時間應用精確的數(shù)字來表示。Ø 如果句子中羅列了許多數(shù)據(jù)，則應如下：l 如果數(shù)據(jù)個數(shù)不多，且所有數(shù)

8、據(jù)僅包括一或兩個數(shù)字，則數(shù)據(jù)可以用數(shù)字或單詞來表示l 如果羅列的數(shù)據(jù)包括三或更多的數(shù)字，則應使用數(shù)字Ø 當一個數(shù)據(jù)緊接著另一個數(shù)據(jù)，則第一個數(shù)據(jù)用單詞表示，而第二個數(shù)據(jù)用數(shù)字表示，例: five 16foot boardsØ 當數(shù)據(jù)用來表示精確的計量、距離、尺寸、容量、重量、錢數(shù)和比例時，用數(shù)字來表示數(shù)據(jù)，例如：7 feetØ 近似數(shù)據(jù)應用單詞表示，在表示的時候應取整數(shù)表示：注意：在技術(shù)寫作中，所有電學數(shù)據(jù)都應用數(shù)字來表示，例如: nearly two hundred, 又如1500 ohms（電學）Ø 除了特定原因外，四位數(shù)據(jù)不用逗號，而五位或更多位的

9、數(shù)據(jù)，則應從右邊起每三個數(shù)字用逗號分開，例如：5000，又如12，000Ø 當數(shù)據(jù)小于1時，則應在小數(shù)前放置0，例如：0.008，注意如果數(shù)據(jù)用列來表示，則小數(shù)點應對其，例如：0.7530.00050.925Ø 當表示日期時，通常使用數(shù)字，數(shù)字通常緊隨月份，例如：july 5，1981Ø 在地址中，房號用數(shù)字表示；如果街區(qū)名字中有小于100的數(shù)據(jù)，則用數(shù)字表示，而數(shù)據(jù)大于100時，則使用單詞表示，例如：3293 South Twelfth East更正：在地址中，房號用數(shù)字表示；如果街區(qū)名字中有小于100的數(shù)據(jù)，則街道名用單詞表示，而數(shù)據(jù)大于100時，則使用數(shù)字表

10、示，例如：3293 South Twelfth EastØ 在技術(shù)寫作中，時間用數(shù)字表示，其后通常緊跟a.m., p.m., A.M., P.M.。通常使用小寫形式，例如： 7a.m.。若所列的小時都包括分鐘，則用0，否則不用，例如：8 a.m. 又如 8：00a.m.Ø 數(shù)字通常用來表示圖表名。在表示頁數(shù)時，page的首字母不用大寫，而其他的則需要大寫，例如：page 1, Chapter 5, Figure 1Ø 世紀的名稱通常用單詞表示，且首字母不用大寫，例如：the twentieth centuryØ 歲數(shù)用數(shù)字表示，例如：8 years ol

11、dØ 僅在法律文件中同時使用數(shù)字和單詞，但在技術(shù)寫作中不這樣用。當作者選擇這種形式，則不需要重復，例如：500 watts，不應寫成 five hundred (500) watts rules for fractions（分數(shù)的規(guī)則）Ø 所有的分數(shù)都用單詞表示，例如：two thirds更正：所有的用來表示整體或近似的分數(shù)都用單詞表示，例如：two thirdsØ 用于特定數(shù)據(jù)形式的分數(shù)應用數(shù)字表示，例如：inch(或者 of an inch)Ø 當分數(shù)作為復合形容詞的一部分，則必須使用連字符將分數(shù)與緊隨的形容詞（書上的原文，但是我覺得有問題，應該是緊

12、隨的量詞）連在一起，例如：inchØ 在復合數(shù)（又有整數(shù)又有分數(shù)，例如假分數(shù)）中，應在整數(shù)和分數(shù)之間使用連字符或者空格，例如：1 inchesØ 當復合數(shù)作為復合形容詞一部分時，整數(shù)與分數(shù)之間使用空格，而在復合數(shù)和緊隨的形容詞之間使用連字符，例如：1 inch pipeØ 整篇文章的分數(shù)格式必須一致，要么都使用連字符，要么都使用空格。注：不知道P20的大寫是否要考 3、paraphrasing（意譯）：見書P25-26 要注意paraphrasing應與原文長度相等。意譯、概括和評論是寫論文時的必須部分。當我們引用他人的看法時，我們需要意譯和/或總結(jié)，并表明出處。

13、進行意譯的方式如下：Ø 使用同義詞Ø 改變單詞形式Ø 使用不同的過渡詞，并進行必要的結(jié)構(gòu)調(diào)整Ø 在主動語態(tài)和被動語態(tài)之間進行轉(zhuǎn)換Ø 在肯定詞和否定詞之間進行轉(zhuǎn)換Ø 如果有可能，以作者和標題結(jié)尾Ø 不要改變專業(yè)術(shù)語Ø 提及原文獻4、definition ：見書P47-48、49，通常是給幾個名詞選一個寫definition在正式的定義中，首先應說出該事物所屬的種類，然后再將其與本種類中其他事物區(qū)別。 the grammar of definitions定義的語法：P47Ø 使用正確的冠詞Ø 進行必

14、要的刪減Ø 使用適當?shù)慕樵~ five guidelines for writing a definition寫定義的五個指導：P48Ø 使用精確的詞語來表示類別，例如：錯：a microscope is an object, 對：a microscope is an instrumentØ 要求更正式，例如：錯：a solar cell is something that, 對： a solar cell is a device thatØ 避免使用要定義詞語的不同形式來解釋該詞語，例如：錯：erosion is a process during whi

15、ch the surface of the earth erodesØ 在定義中避免使用when 和where，例如：錯：pollution is when Ø 一些專業(yè)詞匯有不同的含義，因此在寫定義時，應先定性說明目的，例如：例：A cylinder as used in this report is a chamber in which force is exerted on the piston of a reciprocating engine. extended definitions擴展定義：P49-50Ø 分析成分，例見P49Ø 舉例，例見

16、P50Ø 說明發(fā)展歷程，例見P50Ø 說明應用范圍，例見P50Ø 說明普通定義存在的問題或例外，例見P50Ø 預測未來，例見P50 contrastive definition通過對比下定義：P51-53，格式如下：如：the former deals with _ , while the latter is concerned with _ comparative definition通過比較下定義，兩種方法如下所列，好的比較定義通常包括這兩個方法，見書P53：Ø 說明該定義歷史上的變更Ø 概述現(xiàn)代其他專家對于該定義的看法。5、作文

17、（不多于200字，要求用PS結(jié)構(gòu)的文章）：見書P55，最好寫四小段。PS（問題解答）結(jié)構(gòu)的文章通常包括4個部分：Ø description of a situation描述相關情況：見書P55Ø identification of a problem辨別問題Ø description of a solution描述解決方法Ø evaluation of the solution評估解決方法注意：有可能考書上P57的practice 23中的五個詞語（如下所列），尤其前三個：Ø Private carsØ High education&

18、#216; Population explosionØ Environmental pollutionØ One related to your own field of study一、 Introduction分析文本，寫出每一步有哪些句子，具體功能。Move 1 a. Show the general research area is important/central/interesting/problematic/relevant in some way. 【一些標志性詞、句】 Recently, there has been growing interest in

19、 The possibility of has generated wide interest in The development of is a classic problem in The development of has led to the hope that The has become a favorite topic for analysis Knowledge of has a great importance for The study of has become an important aspect of A central issue in is The has

20、been extensively studied in recent years. Many investigators have recently turned to The relationship between has been investigated by many researchers. Many recent studies have focused on b. Introduce and reviewing items of previous research in the area. 【引述、時態(tài)】 一般過去時一般有具體施動者（一般指某一項單獨研究） 現(xiàn)在完成時沒有具體施

21、動者（一般指某個領域） 一般現(xiàn)在時不是某位研究者的某項具體研究（當前某個知識的說明）Move 2 (however，nevertheless提出問題)Indicate a gap in the previous research.Raise a question about it. (Raise a question, a hypothesis, or a need.)Extend previous knowledge in some way.(Continue a line of research.)Move 3a. Outline purposes or state the nature

22、of the present research. 【一些標志句子】 (Purposive)The aim of the present paper is to give The main purpose of the experiment reported here was to This study was designed to evaluate It is the purpose of the present paper to provide (Descriptive)This paper reports on the results obtained In this paper we

23、give preliminary results for The present work extends the use of the last model by We now report the interaction between The primary focus of this paper is on .b. Announce principal findings.c. Indicate the structure of the RP.二、 ParaphraseTo paraphrase means to completely reproduce the original mea

24、ning in our own words (but never include our own opinion).【Outlines】 Use synonyms.（用同義詞） Change word forms. （改變單詞形式） Use different transitional words and make the necessary structure adjustment. Change between Active Voice and Passive Voice. (主動、被動語態(tài)轉(zhuǎn)換) Change between the Affirmative and the Negativ

25、e. (肯定句、否定句轉(zhuǎn)換) Be complete with author and title if possible. Do not change technical terms. Include reference to the original source.三、 Definition1、sentence definitionA formal definition is written as one or two complete sentences and consists of three parts:(1) the word to be defined(2) a general

26、class to which the word belongs(3) the characteristics of the word being defined that distinguish that word from other members of the general classA(n) term is (a/an) class wh-word/that specific detail .【注意】（1） 正確使用冠詞（2） 做必要的刪減（3） 正確使用介詞【outlines】(1) find the prcise word or phrase for the class(2) b

27、e more formal(3) avoid using any form of your term in your definition(4) avoid using when and where in definitions(5) some technical terms have more than one meaning, a qualifying statement is included in a definition written for one specific purpose2、extended definitionsAn extended definition usual

28、ly begins with a general, one-sentence definition and then becomes more specific as additional details are provided.【結(jié)構(gòu)】（1） an analysis of components（2） examples（3） a sense of historical change and development（4） a knowledge of applications（5） an awareness of problems with or exceptions to the gener

29、al definition（6） future predictions【Contrastive Definitions】 To display your knowledge about two or more related terms.【Comparative Definitions】 To display your knowledge of the complexities surrounding key terms in your field of study. Two approaches of this type of task: (1) to present a historica

30、l account of how a concept has changed over time, (2) to present an overview of how various experts today view a concept differently.四、 PS text (Problem-solution text)(1) Description of a situation(2) Identification of a problem(3) Description of a solution(4) Evaluation of the solution五、 Erect erro

31、rs南 京 航 空 航 天 大 學研究生考試試卷200 7 2008學年 第二 學期 博士生學術(shù)英語寫作 課程考試日期: 2009 年01 月 05 日 課程編號：命題教師: 施鳴鳴 陳彩莉Part IDirections: Identify the three moves in the following Introduction Sections and decide the general function of each move. Write your answers on the answer sheet. (20 points) Introduction 1The liquid

32、sloshing in fuel containers of spacecraft has been given increasing attention with the development of liquid-filled spacecraft. At present, the linear equivalent mechanical model is commonly used to deal with the liquid sloshing in engineering practice. The model parameters, frequencies and damping

33、of the sloshing with small amplitude have to be identified1. Theoretical analysis of damping in liquid sloshing with small amplitude can be traced back to Stokes2 who calculated the flow over an oscillating plane and remarked that the flow over an oscillating curved boundary may be approximated with

34、 a relatively good accuracy by regarding each element of the boundary as an infinite plane oscillating with the same velocity. But there is a great difference between the theoretical results and measured values. It was pointed out in Ref. 3 that the damping of liquid sloshing is usually caused by: (

35、i) viscous dissipation at a rigid boundary of the container, (ii) viscous dissipation at the free surface, which may be covered by a viscoelastic film, (iii) viscous damping in the interior fluid，and (iv) capillary hysteresis at a contact line. Miles and Henderson3,4, and Martel et a1.5 did a series

36、 of analyses on the sloshing damping in a full cylinder container and proposed to compute the rigid boundary damping based on Stokes theory and the inner damping based on Lambs dissipation and take their sum as the total damping. Hexi Baoin6 presented an eigenvalue equation for computing the sloshin

37、g damping in the interior fluid and the frequencies. According to these studies it can be said that the liquid sloshing damping is very complicated and in most cases it is impossible to get the exact value. Therefore, to estimate the range may be a better way for engineering practice. In the present

38、 paper, a damping estimation scheme based on FEM is proposed.Introduction 21Aircraft seats are an airlines product. 2Similar to any other product, a larger quantity secures sales, while extra inventory incurs costs.3For airlines, providing larger capacities implies higher operating costs. 4On the ot

39、her hand, aircraft seats are perishable, that is, unsold seats at the departure of the flight are wasted. 5Consequently, the ideal strategy is to provide just the right number of seats to passengers at the right price. 6The first of these two ideals is addressed by the fleet assignment process, whic

40、h is the subject of the present paper, while the second falls in the purview of yield or revenue management. 7The fleet assignment problem (FAP) deals with assigning aircraft types, each having a different capacity, to the scheduled flights, based on equipment capabilities and availabilities, operat

41、ional costs, and potential revenues. 8An airlines fleeting decision highly impacts their revenues: Assigning a smaller aircraft than needed on a flight will result in spilled (i.e., lost) customers due to insufficient capacity; assigning a larger aircraft will result in spoiled (i.e., unsold) seats,

42、 and presumably higher operational costs. 9Thus, FAP constitutes an essential component of an airlines overall scheduling process. 10However, due to the large number of flights scheduled each day, which can easily reach thousands for a major airline, and the dependency of the FAP on other airline pr

43、ocesses such as schedule design, crew scheduling, aircraft routing, maintenance planning, and revenue management, solving the FAP has always been a challenging task for the airlines. 11As a result, it is not surprising that the FAP has been extensively studied in the Operations Research literature.

44、12However, most of the traditional approaches proposed for the FAP depend on solving the FAP in isolation from the other airline scheduling processes and under restrictive assumptions such as considering the same-every-day schedule; and using point forecasts for flight-based demands instead of itine

45、rary-based or path-based demands.13Furthermore, customers rejected from their requested itineraries (due to capacity restrictions) are often assumed to be lost. 14In reality, they may choose to take another route that is comparable to their first choice itinerary in terms of the origin, destination,

46、 and time-frame (i.e., they may be recaptured).15The recapture effect has mostly been ignored in analytical studies until very recently.16Recent advances in information technology, coupled with an increasingly competitive marketplace, have motivated researchers to consider new approaches for the FAP

47、 over the last decade. 17These new directions include: (1) integrating the FAP with other airline decision processes such as schedule design, aircraft maintenance routing, and crew scheduling; (2) proposing solution techniques that include additional considerations into the traditional fleeting mode

48、ls, such as considering itinerary-based demand forecasts and the recapture effect, as well as investigating the effectiveness of alternative approaches such as randomized search procedures; and (3) studying dynamic fleeting mechanisms that update the initial fleeting solution as departures approach

49、and more information on demand patterns is gathered, thus providing a more effective way to match the airlines supply with demand.18The aim of this paper is to present a tutorial on the basic and enhanced models and approaches that have been developed for the FAP as well as to suggest some future re

50、search directions in this arena.19For the sake of exposition, we focus on several key recent papers on the FAP, instead of providing an exhaustive survey in this area, for which we refer the interested readers to the review articles by Gopalan and Talluri (1998), Yu and Yang (1998), Barnhart et al.

51、(2004), Clarke and Smith (2004), and Klabjan (in press). 20A special issue of Transportation Science (Ball, 2004) also provides a variety of topics on aviation operations research.21The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: We first introduce the terminology that will be used throughout t

52、his paper in Section 2. 22We then proceed to describe the various fleet assignment models (FAM) in the subsequent sections. 23Specifically, the basic FAM as well as the proposed solution approaches are discussed in Section 3. 24Section 4 presents various approaches that aim at integrating the FAM wi

53、th other airline decision processes. 25Section 5 addresses enhanced FAMs that include certain additional considerations, and Section 6 covers some dynamic fleeting models. 26Finally, Section 7 concludes this paper with some recommendations for future research directions in this area.Part II A. Direc

54、tions: Correct or improve the following sentences. Write your answers on the answer sheet. (15 points, 3 points each)1. A well-dressed man admitted us to the house, and we later learned that he was a thief.2. Chemical literature is doubling every eight years in volume. Every ten to twelve years there is twice as much biomedical material published.3. Glancing out of the window, a beautiful view attracted my attentio