語言學考試概要

1、英語語言學考試范圍整理一、緒論語言學的定義語言學的研究范疇幾對基本概念語言的定義語言的甄別特征(describe and distinguish all the sounds used in language )What is linguistics? 什么是語言學？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 語言學是對語言科學地進行研究的學科。語言學所要研究的不是某一

2、種特定的語言，而是人類所有語言的特性。The scope of linguistics 語言學研究的范疇（注意語言學第二題就是要回答這個）Phonetics語音學Phonology音系學Morphology形態(tài)學Syntax句法學Semantics語義學Pragmatics語用學Sociolinguistics社會語言學Psycholinguistics心理語言學Applied linguistics應用語言學Prescriptive vs. descriptive 規(guī)定性與描述性Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the

3、 language people actually use.Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for “correct” behavior.Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data.Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on “high” written languageSynchronic vs. diachronic 共時性與歷史性T

4、he description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic studyThe description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic studyIn modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.Speech and writing 口頭語與書面語Speech enjoys priority over writing in

5、 modern linguistics study for the following reasons: (1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution(2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing(3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native languageLanguage and parole 語言與言語Language refers to the abstra

6、ct linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole refers to the realization of language in actual useCompetence and performance 能力與運用(記住作者)Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledg

7、e in linguistic communicationWhat is language? 什么是語言？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationCharacteristics of language: 語言的特性Language is a rule-governed systemLanguage is basically vocalLanguage is arbitrary (the fact different languages have different words for

8、 the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeares play “Romeo and Juliet”: “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”)Language is used for human communicationDesign featu

9、res of language 語言的甄別特征(記住5個特性以及作者)American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:1) arbitrariness 武斷性2) productivity 創(chuàng)造性3) duality 二重性4) displacement移位性5) cultural transmission 文化傳遞性二、音系學語言的聲音媒介什么是語音學發(fā)音器官音標寬式和嚴式標音法英語語音的分類音系學和語音學語音、音位、音位變體音位對立、互補分部、最小對立幾條音系規(guī)則超切分特征Two major media of c

10、ommunication: speech and writingThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人類語言交際的聲音稱為語音，這些數目有限的一組語音構成了語言的聲音媒介。Phonetics語音學: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is con

11、cerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds language. Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 發(fā)音語音學（most highly developed）, auditory phonetics 聽覺語音學and acoustic phonetics 聲學語音學Organs of speech 發(fā)音器官The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas

12、 or cavities:The pharyngeal cavity咽腔-the throatThe oral cavity口腔-the mouthThe nasal cavity 鼻腔-the noseVibration of the vocal cords (聲帶) results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing” 濁音，which is a feature of all vowels 元音 and some consonants 輔音。單詞補充：01) velum: The soft palate. 軟腭02) uvula: A

13、 small, conical, fleshy mass of tissue suspended from the center of the soft palate. 小舌，懸雍垂懸垂在軟腭中央的小的圓錐狀肉塊03) larynx: n. 喉04) vocal cord: 聲帶05) membrane: n. A thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or connecting regions, structures, or organs of an animal or a plant. 膜薄而柔軟的組織層

14、，覆蓋在表面或分割連接各種區(qū)域、結構或動植物器官 06) the soft palate: 軟腭07) the hard palate: 硬腭08) the teeth ridge: 齒齦09) alveolus: A tooth socket in the jawbone 牙槽顎骨處的牙床10) the teeth: 牙齒11) the lips: 上下唇12) blade of tongue: 舌面13) back of tongue: 舌根14) pharyngeal cavity: 咽腔15) nasal cavity: 鼻腔16) velar: Articulated with th

15、e back of the tongue touching or near the soft palate, as (g) in good and (k) in cup.軟腭音的用舌頭后部掛觸或靠近軟腭清楚地發(fā)音的，如在 good中的(g)以及在 cup中的(k)17) the tip of the tongue: 舌尖18) the upper front teeth: 上齒19) the roof of the mouth: 上顎20) the lower lip: 下唇音標寬式和嚴式標音法International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The vowels (

16、monophthongs and diphthongs) 元音（單元音&雙元音）The constants 輔音Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only. (in dictionaries and teaching textbooks)用一個符號來表示一個語音的標音方式叫做寬式標音法，這種音標法常見于詞典和教科書。Narrow transcription: the transcription with diacritics.但實際上， 同一語音在不通的語音環(huán)境中的發(fā)音不盡相同， 比如Pit和spit中的/P/音發(fā)音就

17、不一樣。在寬式標音的基礎上， 再用變音符號表示同一語音在不同的語音環(huán)境下不同發(fā)音的標音法叫做窄式標音法。Classification of English speech sounds英語語音的分類The basic difference between a vowel and a constant is that in the pronunciation of the former the air that comes from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mou

18、th, while in that of the latter it is obstructed in one way or another.Classification of English constants英語輔音分類Classification of English vowels:the position of the tongue in the mouth舌位高低:the openness of the mouth,口的張開程度:the shape of the lips園唇與否:length of the vowels元音的長度Phonology 音系學Phonology and

19、phonetics音系學和語音學Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages.語音學研究的是人類所有語言的語音，旨在對語音進行描述和分類。Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how th

20、ese sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.音系學研究的重點是特定語言的語音體系，語音表達意義作用。Phone，phoneme and allophone語音，音位，音位變體Phones, which can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.語音是語音學研究的單位， 是一個個具體的聲音。Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which disti

21、nguish meaning.音位是音系學研究的單位，是抽象的概念， 每一個音位是一組語音特征的集合體，音位具有區(qū)別意義的作用。The different which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.音位變體是一個音位在特定的語音環(huán)境力的具體體現， 同一音位在不同語音環(huán)境里體現為不同的變體，也就是語音。Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair

22、音位對立，互補分布，最小對立對rope and robe that /P/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning; therefore they are in phonemic contrast.可以出現在不同語音組合中的同一為止， 產生意義差別。/P/ and /Ph/ these two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.When two different forms

23、 are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. pen and ben最小對立對指出現在同一位置上的一個音之外其余都相同的兩個語音組合。Some rules in phonology幾條音系規(guī)則Sequential rules 序列規(guī)則 ：blik, klib , bilk, kilb is possible. But lbki, ilbk,

24、bkil , ilkb not possible.Assimilation rules 同化規(guī)則Deletion rule 省略規(guī)則Sign, design, there is no g soundSignature, designation the g is pronounced.Delete a g when it occurs before a final nasal constant.Suprasegmental features- stress, tone, intonation超切分特征重音， 聲調，語調the phonemic features that occur above

25、the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features;超切分特征指切分即單音層面以上的音系特征。三、 MORPHOLOGY 形態(tài)學 請結合詞匯學中的構詞法進行學習。語素：語言最小的意義單位語素的類型復合詞的類型復合詞的特征Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. It is divided into two sub-branche

26、s: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.形態(tài)學研究單詞的內部結構以及構詞規(guī)則， 有屈折形態(tài)學和詞匯形態(tài)學兩大分支。Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language.語素：語言最小的意義單位。Free Morpheme: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent)自由語素可以作為單詞獨立使用。Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one th

27、at cannot stand by itself.粘著語素必須和其他語素結合成單詞Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) root (2)Affix(詞綴)1)Inflectional affixes (屈折詞綴)(inflectional morphemes):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional2)Derivational affixes(派生詞綴) A) prefix: A prefix comes be

28、fore words. B)suffix（后綴）.An adjective suffix（形容詞后綴） that is added to the stem, whatever classis belongs to , the result will be an adjective.free=free root（自由詞根）Morpheme(詞素)Bound root prefixbound derivational affix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem（詞根和詞干）1) Root 2) StemThe differences between root and

29、 stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes, can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Individualistic Undesirables（直接

30、去掉曲折變化后的為這個詞的詞干，可進一步分析）Individualist (stem) undesirable (stem)Individual (stem) desirable (stem)dividable (stem) desire (root, stem)divide(root, stem)Affixation詞綴法（Derivation派生法）：Adding word-formation or derivational affixes to stem.Prefixation前綴：Its the formation of new words by adding a prefixes t

31、o stems.1)表示否定nagative prefixes: un-,non,in-,dis,a- etc.2)reversative or privative prefixes: un-,de-dis etc.3)表示貶義pejorative prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc.4)表示程度degree or size prefixes: arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc.5)表示方向、態(tài)度orientation & attitude prefixes: counter

32、-,contra-,anti-,pro- etc.6)locative prefixes :super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc.7)表示時間、次序time and order prefixes: fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc.8)表示數量number prefixes:uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,tri-,multi-/poly- etc.9)混雜miscellaneous prefixes：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-Suffixation后綴: Its the formation of a new word

33、by adding suffixes to stems. 1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixesCompounding復合法 （also called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems Formation of compoundsNoun + noun（名詞名詞） handbook, sunshineAdjective + noun（形容詞名詞）highway,

34、 deadlineAdjective + noun + -ed（形容詞名詞ed）white-haired, red-eyedVerb + noun(動詞名詞)driveway, breakwater(擋水板)Adverb + noun（副詞名詞）downtown, overburdenNoun + verb（名詞動詞）toothpick, snowfallVerb + adverb（動詞副詞）follow-up, kick-offNoun + adjective（名詞形容詞）world-famous, lifelong-ing form + noun（ing+名詞）baking power,

35、dining-roomother forms（其他）go-between, father-in-lawFeatures of compounds復合詞的特征1.Orthographically書寫特征（Compounds are written in three ways: solid(airmail) hyphenated(air-conditioning) open(air force, air raid)2.Syntactically句法特征(復合詞的詞性一般取決于復合詞最后一個成分的詞性)3.Semantically語義特征（復合詞的意義具有習語性質，許多復合詞的意義都不是其構成成分意

36、義和總和）4.Phonetically語音特征（復合詞的單詞重音落在第一個構成成分上）四、句法學句子的構成句子的類型句子的線性排列與層次結構詞類詞組類短語結構規(guī)則短語結構 規(guī)則的循環(huán)性X標桿理論名詞詞組移位與WH移位其他類型的移位深層結構與表層結構移動a規(guī)則普遍語法原則普遍語法參數Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.As a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules

37、 that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.句法是一個由一套數量有限的抽象規(guī)則組成的系統(tǒng)。Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.句子通常由主語和謂語兩大部分構成。 謂語通常由限定動詞或動詞詞組構成。The referring expression is grammatically calle

38、d subject. 主語是指句子中所被指稱的對象。Types of sentences句子的類型The simple sentence: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.簡單句含一個主語和一個謂語的獨立句子The coordinate sentence: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction.并列句

39、含由連接詞串聯(lián)起來的兩個句子成分The complex sentence: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.The two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.復合句由兩個或兩個以上的子句組成， 其中之一為主要子句， 其余為從屬子句。The liner and hierarchical structure of sentences 句子的線性排列與層次結構

40、The liner word order of a sentence: when a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in sequence.句子的線性排列， 句子無論就其口頭或書面表現形式看， 所含的次都按線性次序排列。(表面上的排列)The hierarchical structure of a sentence：sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase(NP),or verb phrase (VP), grouped together.句子的結構是一種由名詞詞組和動詞詞組等句法成分單位構成的層次性結構。Tree diagrams of sentence structureSNP VPV SNP VPV NP John suggested (that)Mary ta