但須協(xié)助供應(yīng)商改善

1、Chapter 8Quality ManagementTotal Quality Management DefinedQuality Specifications and CostsSix Sigma Quality and ToolsExternal BenchmarkingISO 9000Service Quality MeasurementOBJECTIVES Total Quality Management (TQM)Total quality management is defined as managing the entire organization so that it ex

2、cels on all dimensions of products and services that are important to the customerQuality SpecificationsDesign quality: Inherent value of the product in the marketplaceDimensions include: Performance, Features, Reliability/Durability, Serviceability, Aesthetics, and Perceived Quality.Conformance qua

3、lity: Degree to which the product or service design specifications are met 構(gòu)面定義績效產(chǎn)品或服務(wù)的主要功能特性特色增加產(chǎn)品的觸感、鈴聲、聲音等次要特性可靠度隨著時(shí)間，績效仍可維持一定的水準(zhǔn)；失敗率耐用性可用期間易服務(wù)性容易維修回應(yīng)人際接觸的特性（時(shí)間、禮貌、專業(yè)等）外觀感覺屬性（聲音、感覺、外觀等）聲譽(yù)過去績效及其它無形資產(chǎn)(認(rèn)知品質(zhì))設(shè)計(jì)品質(zhì)構(gòu)面衡量構(gòu)面雷射印表機(jī) 銀行支票帳戶績效頁數(shù)/分鐘、列印密度處理一個(gè)顧客所需的時(shí)間特徵多紙匣 色彩自動(dòng)付款設(shè)備可靠度/耐用性平均失敗期間/預(yù)計(jì)過時(shí)時(shí)間/主要零件的壽命處理交易時(shí)間

4、的變異性/與產(chǎn)業(yè)趨勢同步易服務(wù)性授權(quán)維修站的方便性/每個(gè)碳粉匣可印張數(shù)/模組化設(shè)計(jì)線上報(bào)表/取得更新資訊的方便性 外觀按鍵設(shè)計(jì)/外殼造型/經(jīng)銷商的接待態(tài)度 銀行大廳的外觀/出納員的態(tài)度知覺品質(zhì) 品牌知名度/在消費(fèi)者心中的排名/績效報(bào)告 同業(yè)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者的背書Costs of Quality品質(zhì)成本係指產(chǎn)品無法達(dá)到100%完美時(shí)，產(chǎn)生的所有成本，即品質(zhì)成本為現(xiàn)有成本與卓越品質(zhì)下成本的差距。品質(zhì)成本的大小 約可占企業(yè)總銷售額的15%至20%。Philip Crosby認(rèn)為一個(gè)運(yùn)作良好的品質(zhì)計(jì)畫，品質(zhì)成本應(yīng)控制在銷售額的2.5%以下。 Costs of Quality分析品質(zhì)成本有三項(xiàng)基本假設(shè)：(1)失敗

5、是有原因的(2)事前預(yù)防的成本總是較低的(3)品質(zhì)績效是可以衡量的。Costs of Quality External Failure Costs Appraisal CostsPrevention CostsInternal FailureCostsCosts ofQualityCosts of Quality品管部門的功能產(chǎn)品可靠度設(shè)計(jì)的測試蒐集市場的產(chǎn)品績效資訊，並解決市場調(diào)查所發(fā)現(xiàn)的品質(zhì)問題。擬定工廠的品管計(jì)畫與預(yù)算 設(shè)計(jì)與監(jiān)控品質(zhì)系統(tǒng)與檢測流程，並實(shí)際執(zhí)行需要特殊技術(shù)背景的檢測作業(yè)。 QC部門常用的統(tǒng)計(jì)品質(zhì)管制工具 允收抽樣及製程管制 Six Sigma QualityA philo

6、sophy and set ofmethods companies use to eliminate defects in their products and processesSeeks to reduce variation in the processes that lead to product defectsThe name, “six sigma” refers to the variation that exists within plus or minus three standard deviations of the process outputsSix Sigma Qu

7、alitySix Sigma allows managers to readily describe process performance using a common metric: Defects Per Million Opportunities (DPMO)Six Sigma QualityExample of Defects Per Million Opportunities (DPMO) calculation. Suppose we observe 200 letters delivered incorrectly to the wrong addresses in a sma

8、ll city during a single day when a total of 200,000 letters were delivered. What is the DPMO in this situation?So, for every one million letters delivered this citys postal managers can expect to have 1,000 letters incorrectly sent to the wrong address.Cost of Quality: What might that DPMO mean in t

9、erms of over-time employment to correct the errors?Six Sigma Quality: DMAIC CycleDefine, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control (DMAIC) Developed by General Electric as a means of focusing effort on quality using a methodological approachOverall focus of the methodology is to understand and achieve

10、what the customer wantsA 6-sigma program seeks to reduce the variation in the processes that lead to these defectsDMAIC consists of five steps.Six Sigma Quality: DMAIC Cycle1. Define (D)2. Measure (M)3. Analyze (A)4. Improve (I)5. Control (C)Customers and their prioritiesProcess and its performanceC

11、auses of defectsRemove causes of defectsMaintain qualityExample to illustrate the processWe are the maker of this cereal. Consumer reports has just published an article that shows that we frequently have less than 15 ounces of cereal in a box.What should we do?Step 1 - DefineWhat is the critical-to-

12、quality characteristic?The CTQ (critical-to-quality) characteristic in this case is the weight of the cereal in the box.2 - MeasureHow would we measure to evaluate the extent of the problem?What are acceptable limits on this measure?2 MeasureLets assume that the government says that we must be withi

13、n 5 percent of the weight advertised on the box.Upper Tolerance Limit = 16 + .05(16) = 16.8 ouncesLower Tolerance Limit = 16 .05(16) = 15.2 ounces2. MeasureWe go out and buy 1,000 boxes of cereal and find that they weight an average of 15.875 ounces with a standard deviation of .529 ounces.What perc

14、entage of boxes are outside the tolerance limits?Upper Tolerance = 16.8Lower Tolerance = 15.2ProcessMean = 15.875Std. Dev. = .529What percentage of boxes are defective (i.e. less than 15.2 oz)?Z = (x Mean)/Std. Dev. = (15.2 15.875)/.529 = -1.276NORMSDIST(Z) = NORMSDIST(-1.276) = .100978Approximately

15、, 10 percent of the boxes have less than 15.2 Ounces of cereal in them!Step 3 - Analyze - How can we improve the capability of our cereal box filling process?Decrease VariationCenter ProcessIncrease SpecificationsStep 4 Improve How good is good enough?Motorolas “Six Sigma”6s minimum from process cen

16、ter to nearest specMotorolas “Six Sigma”Implies 2 ppB “bad” with no process shiftWith 1.5s shift in either direction from center (process will move), implies 3.4 ppm “bad”.Step 5 ControlStatistical Process Control (SPC)Use data from the actual processEstimate distributionsLook at capability - is goo

17、d quality possibleStatistically monitor the process over timeAnalytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous Improvement: Flow Chart No, ContinueMaterial Received from SupplierInspect Material for DefectsDefects found?Return to Supplier for CreditYesCan be used to find quality problemsAnalytical Tools

18、 for Six Sigma and Continuous Improvement: Run ChartCan be used to identify when equipment or processes are not behaving according to specifications0.440.460.480.50.520.540.560.58123456789101112Time (Hours)DiameterAnalytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous Improvement: Pareto AnalysisCan be used

19、to find when 80% of the problems may be attributed to 20% of thecausesAssy.Instruct.FrequencyDesignPurch.Training80%Analytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous Improvement: ChecksheetBilling ErrorsWrong Account Wrong AmountA/R ErrorsWrong Account Wrong AmountMondayCan be used to keep track of defe

20、cts or used to make sure people collect data in a correct mannerAnalytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous Improvement: HistogramNumber of LotsData RangesDefectsin lot01234Can be used to identify the frequency of quality defect occurrence and display quality performanceAnalytical Tools for Six Si

21、gma and Continuous Improvement: Cause & Effect DiagramEffectManMachineMaterialMethodEnvironmentPossible causes:The results or effectCan be used to systematically track backwards to find a possible cause of a quality problem (or effect)Analytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous Improvement: Contro

22、l ChartsCan be used to monitor ongoing production process quality and quality conformance to stated standards of quality9709809901000101010200123456789101112131415LCLUCLOther Six Sigma ToolsFailure Mode and Effect Analysis (DMEA) is a structured approach to identify, estimate, prioritize, and evalua

23、te risk of possible failures at each stage in the processDesign of Experiments (DOE) a statistical test to determine cause-and-effect relationships between process variables and outputSix Sigma Roles and ResponsibilitiesExecutive leaders must champion the process of improvementCorporation-wide train

24、ing in Six Sigma concepts and toolsSetting stretch objectives for improvementContinuous reinforcement and rewardsThe Shingo System: Fail-Safe DesignShingos argument:SQC methods do not prevent defectsDefects arise when people make errorsDefects can be prevented by providing workers with feedback on e

25、rrorsPoka-Yoke includes:ChecklistsSpecial tooling that prevents workers from making errorsISO 9000Series of standards agreed upon by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)Adopted in 1987More than 100 countriesA prerequisite for global competition?ISO 9000 directs you to document wh

26、at you do and then do as you documented Three Forms of ISO Certification1. First party: A firm audits itself against ISO 9000 standards2. Second party: A customer audits its supplier3. Third party: A qualified national or international standards or certifying agency serves as auditorExternal Benchma

27、rking Steps1. Identify those processes needing improvement 2. Identify a firm that is the world leader in performing the process3. Contact the managers of that company and make a personal visit to interview managers and workers4. Analyze dataService Quality Measurement: ServqualA perceived service q

28、uality questionnaire survey methodology 可藉由顧客填寫SERVQUAL問卷，衡量顧客對服務(wù)品質(zhì)的期望與實(shí)際感受間的差距（或缺口），其間的缺口即代表公司需要改善之處。Service Quality口碑 個(gè)人需求 預(yù)期的服務(wù) 服務(wù)的體驗(yàn) 過去經(jīng)驗(yàn) 服務(wù)品質(zhì)構(gòu)面*信賴度回應(yīng)保證親切實(shí)體面 服務(wù)品質(zhì)知覺1.超過預(yù)期ESPS（不可接受的品質(zhì)） Service Quality Measurement: Servquale-Service Qualitydealing service on the Internete-SQ是衡量網(wǎng)站在提供購物、採購與產(chǎn)品配送時(shí)的效率與

29、有效性。Dimensions of e-Service QualityReliability網(wǎng)站正確的技術(shù)功能與達(dá)成服務(wù)的承諾、正確的帳單與產(chǎn)品資訊。Responsiveness能快速回應(yīng)並協(xié)助顧客的能力。Access當(dāng)顧客有需求時(shí)，能快速地連上公司網(wǎng)站。Flexibility付款、送貨、採購、搜尋與退貨方式的選擇。Ease of Navigation網(wǎng)站提供的功能，可協(xié)助使用者輕易地找到需要的資訊、提供良好的搜尋引擎，允許顧客瀏覽時(shí)容易且快速的換頁。Efficiency指網(wǎng)站可使用簡便、適合的架構(gòu)，使用者只需要輸入少量的資訊。Dimensions of e-Service QualityAs

30、surance/Trust係指因網(wǎng)站的商譽(yù)，以及銷售之產(chǎn)品與服務(wù)的品質(zhì)，可讓顧客信賴。Security/Privacy讓顧客可信任網(wǎng)站的安全性，並保護(hù)顧客的個(gè)人資料。Price Knowledge顧客可於購物流程中，判斷運(yùn)費(fèi)、總價(jià)與比價(jià)。Site Aesthetics指網(wǎng)站的外觀（美工）。Customization/Personalization允許個(gè)別顧客設(shè)定偏好、購物歷史資料以及購物的方式。抽樣調(diào)查決策準(zhǔn)則單次多次抽樣計(jì)畫抽個(gè)樣本允收拒收作業(yè)特性曲線在某特定抽樣計(jì)畫下各種不良率送驗(yàn)批會(huì)被允收的機(jī)率作業(yè)特性曲線常使用的機(jī)率分配當(dāng)批量數(shù)10*樣本數(shù) 二項(xiàng)分配當(dāng)批量數(shù)10*樣本數(shù),批量不良率0.

31、1 卜瓦松分配當(dāng)批量數(shù) 10*樣本數(shù),批量不良率0.1 常態(tài)分配作業(yè)特性曲線允收機(jī)率拒收水準(zhǔn)生產(chǎn)者冒險(xiǎn)率消費(fèi)者冒險(xiǎn)率常態(tài)分配-3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3Mean68.26%95.44%99.74% = Standard deviation管制圖計(jì)量管制圖全距圖(R-control chart)平均數(shù)管制圖(X-control chart)計(jì)數(shù)管制圖P管制圖C管制圖R 管制圖R = 0.0021UCLR = D4RLCLR = D3RX 管制圖R = 0.0021x = 0.5027UCLx = x + A2RLCLx = x - A2RX-Charts R-Charts 界限因素 Con

32、trol Chart FactorsFactor for UCLFactor forFactorSize ofand LCL forLCL forUCL forSamplex-ChartsR-ChartsR-Charts(n)(A2)(D3)(D4)21.88003.26731.02302.57540.72902.28250.57702.11560.48302.00470.4190.0761.924範(fàn)例Sample SampleNumber1234RangeMean10.50140.50220.50090.50270.00180.501820.50210.50410.50240.50200.0

33、0210.502730.50180.50260.50350.50230.00170.502640.50080.50340.50240.50150.00260.502050.50410.50560.50340.50470.00220.5045R =0.0021x =0.5027R 管制圖結(jié)果R - ChartsR = 0.0021D4 = 2.282D3 = 0UCLR = 2.282 (0.0021) = 0.00479 in.LCLR = 0 (0.0021) = 0 in.UCLR = D4RLCLR = D3RR 管制圖結(jié)果Sample number123456Range (in.)LC

34、LR = 0UCLR = 0.00479R = 0.0021X 管制圖結(jié)果R = 0.0021A2 = 0.729x = 0.5027x - ChartsUCLx = x + A2RLCLx = x - A2RUCLx = 0.5027 + 0.729 (0.0021) = 0.5042 in.LCLx = 0.5027 - 0.729 (0.0021) = 0.5012 in.X 管制圖結(jié)果Sample number123456Average (in.)x = 0.5027UCLx = 0.5042LCLx = 0.5012非機(jī)遇原因下製程Out of control(assignable cause