中英文文獻(xiàn)以及翻譯(化工類)

1、 廣東石油化工學(xué)院本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計文獻(xiàn)翻譯Foreign material：Chemical Industry1.Origins of the Chemical IndustryAlthough the use of chemicals dates back to the ancient civilizations, theevolution of what we know as the modern chemical industry started much morerecently. It may be considered to have begun during the Industri

2、al Revolution, about1800, and developed to provide chemicals roe use by other industries. Examples arealkali for soapmaking, bleaching powder for cotton, and silica and sodium carbonatefor glassmaking. It will be noted that these are all inorganic chemicals. The organicchemicals industry started in

3、the 1860s with the exploitation of William HenryPerkins discovery if the first synthetic dyestuff mauve. At the start of the twentiethcentury the emphasis on research on the applied aspects of chemistry in Germany hadpaid off handsomely, and by 1914 had resulted in the German chemical industryhaving

4、 75% of the world market in chemicals. This was based on the discovery ofnew dyestuffs plus the development of both the contact process for sulphuric acid andthe Haber process for ammonia. The later required a major technologicalbreakthrough that of being able to carry out chemical reactions under c

5、onditions ofvery high pressure for the first time. The experience gained with this was to standGermany in good stead, particularly with the rapidly increased demand fornitrogen-based compounds (ammonium salts for fertilizers and nitric acid forexplosives manufacture) with the outbreak of world warin

6、 1914. This initiatedprofound changes which continued during the inter-war years (1918-1939).Since 1940 the chemical industry has grown at a remarkable rate, although thishas slowed significantly in recent years. The lions share of this growth has been inthe organic chemicals sector due to the devel

7、opment and growth of the petrochemicalsarea since 1950s. The explosives growth in petrochemicals in the 1960s and 1970swas largely due to the enormous increase in demand for synthetic polymers such aspolyethylene, polypropylene, nylon, polyesters and epoxy resins.The chemical industry today is a ver

8、y diverse sector of manufacturing industry,within which it plays a central role. It makes thousands of different chemicals which1 廣東石油化工學(xué)院本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計文獻(xiàn)翻譯the general public only usually encounter as end or consumer products. Theseproducts are purchased because they have the required properties which make

9、themsuitable for some particular application, e.g. a non-stick coating for pans or aweedkiller. Thus chemicals are ultimately sold for the effects that they produce.2. Definition of the Chemical IndustryAt the turn of the century there would have been little difficulty in defining whatconstituted th

10、e chemical industry since only a very limited range of products wasmanufactured and these were clearly chemicals, e.g., alkali, sulphuric acid. At present,however, many intermediates to products produced, from raw materials like crude oilthrough (in some cases) many intermediates to products which m

11、ay be used directlyas consumer goods, or readily converted into them. The difficulty cones in deciding atwhich point in this sequence the particular operation ceases to be part of the chemicalindustrys sphere of activities. To consider a specific example to illustrate thisdilemma, emulsion paints ma

12、y contain poly (vinyl chloride) / poly (vinyl acetate).Clearly, synthesis of vinyl chloride (or acetate) and its polymerization are chemicalactivities. However, if formulation and mixing of the paint, including the polymer, iscarried out by a branch of the multinational chemical company which manufa

13、cturedthe ingredients, is this still part of the chemical industry of does it mow belong in thedecorating industry?It is therefore apparent that, because of its diversity of operations and closelinks in many areas with other industries, there is no simple definition of the chemicalindustry. Instead

14、each official body which collects and publishes statistics onmanufacturing industry will have its definition as to which operations are classified asthe chemical industry. It is important to bear this in mind when comparing statisticalinformation which is derived from several sources.3. The Need for

15、 Chemical IndustryThe chemical industry is concerned with converting raw materials, such as crudeoil, firstly into chemical intermediates and then into a tremendous variety of otherchemicals. These are then used to produce consumer products, which make our lives2 廣東石油化工學(xué)院本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計文獻(xiàn)翻譯more comfortable o

16、r, in some cases such as pharmaceutical produces, help to maintainour well-being or even life itself. At each stage of these operations value is added tothe produce and provided this added exceeds the raw material plus processing coststhen a profit will be made on the operation. It is the aim of che

17、mical industry toachieve this.It may seem strange in textbook this one to pose the question “do we need achemical industry?” However trying to answer this question will provide() anindication of the range of the chemical industrys activities, ( ) its influence on ourlives in everyday terms, and ( )

18、how great is societys need for a chemical industry.Our approach in answering the question will be to consider the industrys co ntributionto meeting and satisfying our major needs. What are these? Clearly food (and drink)and health are paramount. Other which we shall consider in their turn are clothi

19、ng and(briefly) shelter, leisure and transport.(1)Food. The chemical industry makes a major contribution to food production inat least three ways. Firstly, by making available large quantities of artificial fertilizerswhich are used to replace the elements (mainly nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium)

20、which are removed as nutrients by the growing crops during modern intensivefarming. Secondly, by manufacturing crop protection chemicals, i.e., pesticides, whichmarkedly reduce the proportion of the crops consumed by pests. Thirdly, byproducing veterinary products which protect livestock from diseas

21、e or cure theirinfections.(2)Health. We are all aware of the major contribution which the pharmaceuticalsector of the industry has made to help keep us all healthy, e.g. by curing bacterialinfections with antibiotics, and even extending life itself, e.g. blockers to lowerblood pressure.(3)Clothing.

22、The improvement in properties of modern synthetic fibers over thetraditional clothing materials (e.g. cotton and wool) has been quite remarkable. Thusshirts, dresses and suits made from polyesters like Terylene and polyamides likeNylon are crease-resistant, machine-washable, and drip-dry or non-iron

23、. They are alsocheaper than natural materials.Parallel developments in the discovery of modernsynthetic dyes and the technology to “bond” them to the fiber has resulted in atremendous increase in the variety of colors available to the fashion designer. Indeedthey now span almost every color and hue

24、of the visible spectrum. Indeed if a suitableshade is not available, structural modification of an existing dye to achieve this can3 廣東石油化工學(xué)院本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計文獻(xiàn)翻譯readily be carried out, provided there is a satisfactory market for the product.Othermajor advances in this sphere have been in color-fastness, i.e.,

25、 resistance to the dyebeing washed out when the garment is cleaned.(4)Shelter, leisure and transport. In terms of shelter the contribution of modernsynthetic polymers has been substantial. Plastics are tending to replace traditionalbuilding materials like wood because they are lighter, maintenance-f

26、ree (i.e. they areresistant to weathering and do not need painting). Other polymers, e.g.urea-formaldehyde and polyurethanes, are important insulating materials f or reducingheat losses and hence reducing energy usage.Plastics and polymers have made a considerable impact on leisure activitieswith ap

27、plications ranging from all-weather artificial surfaces for athletic tracks,football pitches and tennis courts to nylon strings for racquets and items like golf ballsand footballs made entirely from synthetic materials.Likewise the chemical industrys contribution to transport over the years has ledt

28、o major improvements. Thus development of improved additives like anti-oxidantsand viscosity index improves for engine oil has enabled routine servicing intervals toincrease from 3000 to 6000 to 12000 miles. Research and development work has alsoresulted in improved lubricating oils and greases, and

29、 better brake fluids. Yet again thecontribution of polymers and plastics has been very striking with the proportion of thetotal automobile derived from these materialsdashboard, steering wheel, seatpadding and covering etc.now exceeding 40%.So it is quite apparent even from a brief look at the chemi

30、cal industryscontribution to meeting our major needs that life in the world would be very differentwithout the products of the industry. Indeed the level of a countrys development maybe judged by the production level and sophistication of its chemical industry4.Research and Development (R&D) in Chem

31、ical IndustriesOne of the main reasons for the rapid growth of the chemical industry in thedeveloped world has been its great commitment to, and investment in research anddevelopment (R&D). A typical figure is 5% of sales income, with this figure beingalmost doubled for the most research intensive s

32、ector, pharmaceuticals. It is importantto emphasize that we are quoting percentages here not of profits but of sales income,i.e. the total money received, which has to pay for raw materials, overheads, staffsalaries, etc. as well. In the past this tremendous investment has paid off well, leadingto m

33、any useful and valuable products being introduced to the market. Examples4 廣東石油化工學(xué)院本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計文獻(xiàn)翻譯include synthetic polymers like nylons and polyesters, and drugs and pesticides.Although the number of new products introduced to the market has declinedsignificantly in recent years, and in times of recessi

34、on the research department isusually one of the first to suffer cutbacks, the commitment to R&D remains at a veryhigh level.The chemical industry is a very high technology industry which takes fulladvantage of the latest advances in electronics and engineering. Computers are verywidely used for all

35、sorts of applications, from automatic control of chemical plants, tomolecular modeling of structures of new compounds, to the control of analyticalinstruments in the laboratory.Individual manufacturing plants have capacities ranging from just a few tonesper year in the fine chemicals area to the rea

36、l giants in the fertilizer and petrochemicalsectors which range up to 500,000 tonnes. The latter requires enormous capitalinvestment, since a single plant of this size can now cost $520 million! This, coupledwith the widespread use of automatic control equipment, helps to explain why thechemical ind

37、ustry is capital-rather than labor-intensive.The major chemical companies are truly multinational and operate their salesand marketing activities in most of the countries of the world, and they also havemanufacturing units in a number of countries. This international outlook foroperations, or global

38、ization, is a growing trend within the chemical industry, withcompanies expanding their activities either by erecting manufacturing units in othercountries or by taking over companies which are already operating there.5 廣東石油化工學(xué)院本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計文獻(xiàn)翻譯化學(xué)工業(yè)1.化學(xué)工業(yè)的起源盡管化學(xué)品的使用可以追溯到古代文明時代，我們所謂的現(xiàn)代化學(xué)工業(yè)的發(fā)展卻是非常近代（才開始的）?？梢?/p>

39、認(rèn)為它起源于工業(yè)革命其間，大約在 1800年，并發(fā)展成為為其它工業(yè)部門提供化學(xué)原料的產(chǎn)業(yè)。比如制肥皂所用的堿，棉布生產(chǎn)所用的漂白粉，玻璃制造業(yè)所用的硅及 Na CO . 我們會注意到所有這些都23是無機(jī)物。有機(jī)化學(xué)工業(yè)的開始是在十九世紀(jì)六十年代以 William Henry Perkin發(fā)現(xiàn)第一種合成染料苯胺紫并加以開發(fā)利用為標(biāo)志的。20 世紀(jì)初，德國花費(fèi)大量資金用于實用化學(xué)方面的重點研究，到 1914 年，德國的化學(xué)工業(yè)在世界化學(xué)產(chǎn)品市場上占有 75%的份額。這要歸因于新染料的發(fā)現(xiàn)以及硫酸的接觸法生產(chǎn)和氨的哈伯生產(chǎn)工藝的發(fā)展。而后者需要較大的技術(shù)突破使得化學(xué)反應(yīng)第一次可以在非常高的壓力條件下

40、進(jìn)行。這方面所取得的成績對德國很有幫助。特別是由于 1914 年第一次世界大仗的爆發(fā)，對以氮為基礎(chǔ)的化合物的需求飛速增長。這種深刻的改變一直持續(xù)到戰(zhàn)后1940 年以來，化學(xué)工業(yè)一直以引人注目的速度飛速發(fā)展。盡管這種發(fā)展的速度近年來已大大減慢?；瘜W(xué)工業(yè)的發(fā)展由于 1950 年以來石油化學(xué)領(lǐng)域的研究和開發(fā)大部分在有機(jī)化學(xué)方面取得。石油化工在 60 年代和 70 年代的迅猛發(fā)展主要是由于人們對于合成高聚物如聚乙烯、聚丙烯、尼龍、聚脂和環(huán)氧樹脂的需求巨大增加。今天的化學(xué)工業(yè)已經(jīng)是制造業(yè)中有著許多分支的部門，并且在制造業(yè)中起著核心的作用。它生產(chǎn)了數(shù)千種不同的化學(xué)產(chǎn)品，而人們通常只接觸到終端產(chǎn)品或消費(fèi)品。

41、這些產(chǎn)品被購買是因為他們具有某些性質(zhì)適合（人們）的一些特別的用途，例如，用于盆的不粘涂層或一種殺蟲劑。這些化學(xué)產(chǎn)品歸根到底是由于它們能產(chǎn)生的作用而被購買的。2.化學(xué)工業(yè)的定義在本世紀(jì)初，要定義什么是化學(xué)工業(yè)是不太困難的，因為那時所生產(chǎn)的化學(xué)6 廣東石油化工學(xué)院本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計文獻(xiàn)翻譯品是很有限的，而且是非常清楚的化學(xué)品，例如，燒堿，硫酸。然而現(xiàn)在有數(shù)千種化學(xué)產(chǎn)品被生產(chǎn)，從一些原料物質(zhì)像用于制備許多的半成品的石油，到可以直接作為消費(fèi)品或很容易轉(zhuǎn)化為消費(fèi)品的商品。困難在于如何決定在一些特殊的生產(chǎn)過程中哪一個環(huán)節(jié)不再屬于化學(xué)工業(yè)的活動范疇。舉一個特殊的例子來描述一下這種困境。乳劑漆含有聚氯乙烯/聚醋酸乙

42、烯。顯然，氯乙烯（或醋酸乙烯）的合成以及聚合是化學(xué)活動。然而，如果這種漆，包括高聚物，它的配制和混合是由一家制造配料的跨國化學(xué)公司完成的話，那它仍然是屬于化學(xué)工業(yè)呢還是應(yīng)當(dāng)歸屬于裝飾工業(yè)中去呢？因此，很明顯，由于化學(xué)工業(yè)經(jīng)營的種類很多并在很多領(lǐng)域與其它工業(yè)有密切的聯(lián)系，所以不能對它下一個簡單的定義。相反的每一個收集和出版制造工業(yè)統(tǒng)計數(shù)據(jù)的官方機(jī)構(gòu)都會對如何屆定哪一類操作為化學(xué)工業(yè)有自己的定義。當(dāng)比較來自不同途徑的統(tǒng)計資料時，記住這點是很重要的。3.對化學(xué)工業(yè)的需要化學(xué)工業(yè)涉及到原材料的轉(zhuǎn)化，如石油 首先轉(zhuǎn)化為化學(xué)中間體，然后轉(zhuǎn)化為數(shù)量眾多的其它化學(xué)產(chǎn)品。這些產(chǎn)品再被用來生產(chǎn)消費(fèi)品，這些消費(fèi)品可

43、以使我們的生活更為舒適或者作藥物維持人類的健康或生命。在生產(chǎn)過程的每一個階段，都有價值加到產(chǎn)品上面，只要這些附加的價值超過原材料和加工成本之和，這個加工就產(chǎn)生了利潤。而這正是化學(xué)工業(yè)要達(dá)到的目的。在這樣的一本教科書中提出：“我們需要化學(xué)工業(yè)嗎？”這樣一個問題是不是有點奇怪呢？然而，先回答下面幾個問題將給我們提供一些信息：（1）化學(xué)工業(yè)的活動范圍，（2）化學(xué)工業(yè)對我們?nèi)粘Ｉ畹挠绊?，?）社會對化學(xué)工業(yè)的需求有多大。在回答這些問題的時候我們的思路將要考慮化學(xué)工業(yè)在滿足和改善我們的主要需求方面所做的貢獻(xiàn)。是些什么需求呢？很顯然，食物和健康是放在第一位的。其它我們要考慮的按順序是衣物、住所、休閑和旅行。(1)食物。化學(xué)工業(yè)對糧食生產(chǎn)所做的巨大貢獻(xiàn)至少有三個方面。第一，提供大量可以獲得的肥料以補(bǔ)充由于密集耕作被農(nóng)作物生長時所帶走的營養(yǎng)成分。（主要是氮、磷和鉀）。