語(yǔ)言學(xué)框架課件

1、 Chapter1IntroductionWhatislinguistics?DefinitionLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Thescopeoflinguistics語(yǔ)言學(xué)范疇Phonetics語(yǔ)音學(xué)/Phonology音系學(xué)/Morphology形態(tài)學(xué)/Syntax句法學(xué)/Semantics語(yǔ)義學(xué)/Pragmatics語(yǔ)用學(xué)Macrolinguistics宏觀語(yǔ)言學(xué)：sociolinguistics社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)/Psycholinguistics心理語(yǔ)言學(xué)/Appliedlinguistics應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言

2、學(xué)Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics語(yǔ)言學(xué)中重要區(qū)別prescriptivevs.descriptive規(guī)定性與描述性synchronicvs.diachronic共時(shí)性與歷時(shí)性|Saussurespeech&writing口語(yǔ)和書(shū)面語(yǔ)langue&parole語(yǔ)言(抽象)和言語(yǔ)(具體)|Saussurrcompetence&performance能力和運(yùn)用Chomskytraditionalgrammar&modernlinguistics傳統(tǒng)語(yǔ)法和現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)索緒爾現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)之父1.2Whatislanguage?DefinitionoflanguageLa

3、nguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Designfeaturesoflanguage語(yǔ)言的區(qū)別U性特征|Hocket，Arbitrariness任意性：符號(hào)的音與義之間沒(méi)有邏輯聯(lián)系。比如說(shuō)，不同的語(yǔ)言使用不同的音指相同的事物。Productivity/Creativity創(chuàng)造性：語(yǔ)言可以被創(chuàng)造。Duality二重性：語(yǔ)言在結(jié)構(gòu)上存在兩個(gè)層次一一低層次（音標(biāo)）和高層次（詞素、單詞等）。Displacement移位性：語(yǔ)言不受語(yǔ)言時(shí)空距離的影響。Culturaltransmission文化傳遞性：語(yǔ)言體系具

4、體內(nèi)容的習(xí)得要通過(guò)后天的學(xué)習(xí)來(lái)獲得。Functionoflanguage（descriptivefunction/expressivefunction/socialfunction）informative信息功能/interpersonal人際功能/performative施為功能/emotive感情功能/phaticcommunication寒暄功能/recreational娛樂(lè)功能/metalinguistic兀語(yǔ)言功能Phonology音系學(xué)Thephonicmediumoflanguage語(yǔ)言的聲音媒介Phonetics語(yǔ)音學(xué)Whatisphonetics?什么是語(yǔ)音學(xué)？Phoneti

5、csisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworldslanguages.articulatoryphonetics發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)研究語(yǔ)言的產(chǎn)生threepointsofviewJauditoryphonetics聽(tīng)覺(jué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)研究語(yǔ)言怎樣被感知acousticphonetics聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音研究語(yǔ)音的物理屬性O(shè)rgansofspeech發(fā)音器官（thepharyngealcavity-thethroat咽腔theoralcavity-themouth口腔thenas

6、alcavity-thenose鼻腔Broadandnarrowtranscriptions寬式和窄式音標(biāo)TheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet（IPA國(guó)際音標(biāo)）DanielJones1888Phonology音系學(xué)Phonologyandphonetics音系學(xué)和語(yǔ)音學(xué)Phonologyisthestudyabouthowspeechsoundinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Phoneticsisthescientifics

7、tudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithdefiningandclassifyingspeechsounds.phonology研究抽象的音位類(lèi)型與規(guī)則一一樣Differences:linleap&peelJphonetics研究具體發(fā)音部位與方式不同Phone,phoneme,andallophone音素、音位和音位變體（1）音素：是語(yǔ)音學(xué)研究的單位，是一個(gè)個(gè)具體的聲音。（2）音位：是音系學(xué)研究的單位，是抽象的概念，每一個(gè)音位是一組語(yǔ)音特征的集合體，音位具有區(qū)別意義的作用?！?”（3）音位變體：是一個(gè)音位在特定的語(yǔ)音環(huán)境力的具體體現(xiàn)，

8、同一音位在不同語(yǔ)音環(huán)境里體現(xiàn)為不同的變體，也就是語(yǔ)音。/k/:kschoolkhcollkskikhkeel總結(jié)：語(yǔ)音學(xué)-音素-發(fā)音-口音系學(xué)-音位-不發(fā)音-/Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpair音位對(duì)立，互補(bǔ)分布，最小對(duì)立體（1）音位對(duì)立：兩個(gè)音位出現(xiàn)在相同的語(yǔ)音環(huán)境中，且具有區(qū)別語(yǔ)義的功能。例：tip和dip中的/t/和/d/；rope和robe中的/p/和/b/（2）互補(bǔ)分布：同一音位不同音位變體之間的關(guān)系，且沒(méi)有區(qū)別意義的功能。例：top中送氣的th和stop中不送氣的t（3）最小對(duì)立體：出現(xiàn)在同一位置上的一

9、個(gè)音之外其余都相同的兩個(gè)語(yǔ)音組合。例：bill和pill（輔音）,bet和but（元音）Somerulesinphonology音系學(xué)規(guī)則Sequentialrules序列規(guī)則三輔音連綴規(guī)則：/s/p/,/t/,/k/l/,/r/,/w/Assimilationrule同化規(guī)則Deletionrule省略規(guī)則:gSuprasegmentalfeatures超音段特征Stress重讀Tone音調(diào)/聲調(diào)Intonation語(yǔ)調(diào)Morphology形態(tài)學(xué)IntroductionMorphologyisconcernedwithwordformationandwordstructure.形態(tài)學(xué)研究單詞

10、的內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)和構(gòu)詞規(guī)則。OpenclassandclosedclassOpenclasswords開(kāi)放詞類(lèi)：contentwords實(shí)詞nouns,verbs,adjectives.Closedclasswords封閉詞類(lèi)：functionwords虛詞conjunctions,articles.Morphemestheminimalunitsofmeaning詞素一最小的“語(yǔ)義”單位（reader是一個(gè)單詞，read和er是兩個(gè)詞素/boys是一個(gè)單詞，boy和s是兩個(gè)詞素）Freeandboundmorphemes自由詞素和黏著詞素自由詞素有完整語(yǔ)義如：book;helpful中的help黏

11、著詞素-詞根、詞綴Allomorphs詞素變體如：a放在輔音前；an放在元音前books,bags,judges中的s三種不同的讀音Analyzingwordstructuresrootsandaffixes(prefix,infix,suffix)Derivationalandinflectionalmorphemesderivationalmorphemes派生詞素：構(gòu)成新單詞如：-ate,inter-,-ism.inflectionalmorphemes曲折詞素：改變數(shù)、時(shí)、格、級(jí)如：-s,-ed,-er,-est(自由詞素free,前綴prefix派生詞素derivationalJ黏著

12、詞素boundJ1后綴suffix曲折詞素inflectionalMorphologicalrulesofwordformationDerivation派生詞Compounds復(fù)合詞DefinitionAcompoundwordismadewhentwowordsarejoinedtoformanewword.復(fù)合詞特征：Orthographically書(shū)寫(xiě)特征：inthreeways:solid(airmail);hyphenated(air-conditioning);open(airforce,airraid)Syntactically句法特征：復(fù)合詞的詞性一般取決于復(fù)合詞最后一個(gè)成分的

13、詞性Semantically語(yǔ)義特征：復(fù)合詞的意義具有習(xí)語(yǔ)性質(zhì)，許多復(fù)合詞的意義都不是其構(gòu)成成分意義和總和Phonetically語(yǔ)音特征：復(fù)合詞的單詞重音落在第一個(gè)構(gòu)成成分上Syntax句法學(xué)Whatissyntax?Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.CategoriesWord-levelcategories（1）majorlexicalcategories:n.v.a.prep.（2）minorlexicalcategories:/determiner（Det限

14、定詞）一the,a,this,those.degreewords（Deg程度詞）一quite,so,more.qqualifier（Qual頻率詞）一often,always,almost.auxiliary（Aux助動(dòng)詞）一must,should,can.iconjunction（Con連接詞）一and,but,or.Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures（1）NPtheprettygirl/VPoftendream/APverypessimistic（2）head中心語(yǔ)；specifier標(biāo)志語(yǔ)；complement補(bǔ)足語(yǔ)Phrasestructurerule

15、XPruleXPSpecifierXComplementHead(thegirlintheroom)Coordinationrule：XXCon(連詞)XPhraseelementsSpecifiers標(biāo)志語(yǔ)SpecifiersHeadsExamplesdeterminerNthetree,nowater,thisbook.qualifierValwaysfail,oftendrink,neverleave.degreewordAlessboring,quitegood,verysensitive.Palmostin,quiteabove.Complements補(bǔ)足語(yǔ)CPItemsHeadsE

16、xamplesAsAdjectivesafraid,awareIwasafraidthatnobodywouldbelieveme.NsNounsfact,beliefShecantbelievethefactthatshewouldfail.PsPrepositionsover,aboutTheyarguedoverwhethershehadcometoclass.4.4.3ModifiersModifierPositionExampleAPprecedestheheadaverycarefulgirlPPfollowstheheadopenwithcareAdvPprecedesorfol

17、lowstheheadreadcarefully;carefullyreadSentences（TheSRule）TransformationsAuxiliarymovement助動(dòng)詞移位DoinsertionDeepstructureandsurfacestructure（thegenerativeapproach生成學(xué)派）（1）深層結(jié)構(gòu)deepstructure指機(jī)構(gòu)關(guān)系中的潛在層面underlyinglevel（移位還沒(méi)有發(fā)生的原始形態(tài)）：Thetrainwillarrive.（2）表層結(jié)構(gòu)surfacestructure指結(jié)構(gòu)形成的最后結(jié)果階段finalstage（移位后的新形態(tài)）：W

18、illthetrainarrive?（3）結(jié)構(gòu)：TheXPRuleDeepStructureTransformationSurfaceStructureWhMovementMoveaandconstraintsontransformationSemantics語(yǔ)義學(xué)WhatissemanticsSemanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.SomeviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaningThenamingtheory指稱(chēng)論P(yáng)latoThewordsusedinalanguagearesimplylabelsoftheobj

19、ectstheystandfor.Sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.Limitations:applicabletonounsonly;抽象名詞(ghost,joy,impulse.)Theconceptualistview觀念論OgdenandRichardsThereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto.semantictriangle語(yǔ)義三角：Thought/Reference(能指：概念)ReferentSymbol/FormReferent（詞和語(yǔ)素）（所指：物體）（詞和語(yǔ)素

20、）Contextualism語(yǔ)境論J.R.Firth,Malinowski,WittgensteinMeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,contextelementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehaviour.Behaviorism行為論Bloomfield,JackandJillTheStimulus-ResponseTheory(S-R)刺激-反應(yīng)理論Lexicalmeaning詞匯意義Senseandreference系統(tǒng)意義與指稱(chēng)意義Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeanin

21、gofalinguisticform,thecollectionofallitsfeatures.(抽象；脫離語(yǔ)境)如：dogReferencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.(具體)如：Thedogisbarking.Limitation:eveningstar(啟明星)andmorningstar(長(zhǎng)庚星)是同一顆星。Majorse

22、nserelations主要的語(yǔ)義關(guān)系Synonymy同義關(guān)系Dialectalsynonyms-synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects.地域同義詞如：秋天(autumn/fall);公寓(flat/apartment).Stylisticsynonyms-synonymsdifferinginstyle.文體同義詞如：daddy,dad,father,maleparent,oldman.Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning.感情同義詞如：collaborator/accomplice均指

23、合作者，但前者為“合作伙伴”，后者為“同謀”Collocationalsynonyms搭配同義詞如：指“壞的食物”rottentomatoes,addledeggs,rancidbaconorbutter.Semanticallydifferentsynonyms意思非常相近的同義詞如：amaze/astoundPolysemy多義關(guān)系一詞多義Homonymythesameform,butdifferentmeaning同音同形異義關(guān)系Homophones:night/knight;piece/peace.Homographs:bow-v./n.;tear-v./nCompletehomony

24、ms:fast-adj./v.;scale-n./vHyponymy上下義關(guān)系Superordinate上義如：flower,animal.(2)Hyponymy下義如：(flower)rose,lily.;(animal)dog,cat.Antonymy反義關(guān)系Gradableantonymy分等級(jí)的反義關(guān)系如：cool-warm;hot-cold.Complementaryantonyms互補(bǔ)反義詞如：dead-alive;male-female.Relationalopposites關(guān)系反義詞如：husband-wife;father-son.Senserelationsbetweens

25、entencesXissynonymouswithY.如：X:Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevermarriedallhislife.XisinconsistentwithY.如：X:Johnismarried.Y:Johnisabachelor.XentailsY.(YisandentailmentofX)衍推如：X:HehasbeentoFranceY:HehasbeentoEurope.XpresupposeY.(YisaprerequisiteofX)預(yù)設(shè)如：X:ThequeenofEnglandisold.Y:Englandhasaqueen.Xisc

26、ontradiction.矛盾如：Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.Xissemanticallyanomalous.非正常的如：Thetablehadbadintentions.AnalysisofmeaningComponentialanalysisawaytoanalyzelexicalmeaningPredicationanalysisawaytoanalyzesentencemeaning補(bǔ)充：Leechandhis7typesofmeaning語(yǔ)義七分法(1)概念意義conceptualmeaning字面意義；(2)內(nèi)涵意義connotat

27、ivemeaning實(shí)際交往過(guò)程中所指的事物；(3)社會(huì)意義(4)情感意義affectivemeaning(5)反射意義reflectivemeaning由一個(gè)詞語(yǔ)聯(lián)想起來(lái)的另外一種意義(6)搭配意義collocativemeaning(7)主位意義thematicmeaning通過(guò)調(diào)整信息的順序和強(qiáng)調(diào)內(nèi)容所表達(dá)的意義Chapter6Pragmatics語(yǔ)用學(xué)SomebasicnotionsDefinitionPragmaticsisthestudyofspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Pragmati

28、csvs.semanticssemantics不考慮語(yǔ)境ContextSentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaningSentencemeaning抽象的，去語(yǔ)境化Utterancemeaning具體的，依靠語(yǔ)境Speechacttheory言語(yǔ)行為理論AustinsmodelofspeechactsJohnAustin認(rèn)為人在說(shuō)話(huà)的同時(shí)也在進(jìn)行一定的行為動(dòng)作constativesandperformatives:constatives敘事句：描述說(shuō)話(huà)人在說(shuō)話(huà)時(shí)所作的動(dòng)作。performatives施為句：實(shí)施某種行為。locutionaryact言?xún)?nèi)行為：表述字面意思il

29、locutionaryact言外行為：因言語(yǔ)本身的習(xí)慣力量而產(chǎn)生的其他一些行為perlocutionaryact言后行為：話(huà)語(yǔ)在聽(tīng)者身上產(chǎn)生的效果SearlesclassificationofspeechactsJohnSearleillocutionaryacts:representatives/assertives:闡述類(lèi)directives:指令類(lèi)commissives:承諾類(lèi)expressives:表達(dá)類(lèi)declarations:宣告類(lèi)6.2.3IndirectspeechactsJohnSearlePrimaryspeechact:goalSecondaryspeechact:mea

30、nsPrincipleofconversationPaulGrice說(shuō)話(huà)人和聽(tīng)話(huà)人為達(dá)一定的交際目的，都有一種默契，一種都遵循的原則Conventionalimplicature規(guī)約含義Particularizedconversationalimplicature特殊會(huì)話(huà)含義CooperativePrinciple(CP):合作原則Themaximofquantity數(shù)量準(zhǔn)則Themaximofquality質(zhì)量準(zhǔn)則Themaximofrelation關(guān)系準(zhǔn)則Themaximofmanner方式準(zhǔn)則UCross-culturalpragmaticfailure跨文化語(yǔ)用失誤補(bǔ)充：后格賴(lài)斯時(shí)期的

31、發(fā)展Relevancetheory關(guān)聯(lián)理論：交際應(yīng)被看做一種表明自身說(shuō)話(huà)意圖的行為T(mén)heQ-andR-principles數(shù)量關(guān)系和關(guān)系原則：由LaurenceHorn提出LanguageChangeIntroductionOldEnglish.MiddleEnglish.ModernEnglishPhonologicalchangesMorphologicalandsyntacticchangeAdditionofaffixesLossofaffixesChangeofwordorderChangeinnegationruleLexicalandsemanticchangeAdditiono

32、fnewwordsCoinage:fornewthingsandobjects如：Kodak,digitalcamera.Clippedwords:如：gym(gymnasium),disco(discotheque)Blending:如：smog(smoke+fog),motel(motor+hotel)Acronyms:可讀首字母縮寫(xiě)如：APEC,UNESCO.Back-formation:如：babysitter-babysit;donation-donate.Functionshift(conversion):如：n.-v.;v.-nBorrowing:如：tea,question,p

33、hysics.補(bǔ)充：cclipping:maths,burger.(長(zhǎng)單詞簡(jiǎn)寫(xiě))Abbreviation縮寫(xiě)：4initialism:UN,USA.(首字母縮寫(xiě))、acronym:UNESCO.(首字母縮合)LossofwordsSemanticchangesSemanticbroadening如：holiday-holydayanyrestdaytail-horseanyanimalSemanticnarrowing如：deer-anyanimal鹿meat-food肉SemanticshiftSomerecenttrendsMovingtowardsgreaterinformationTh

34、einfluenceofAmericanEnglishTheinfluenceofscienceandtechnologyThecausesoflanguagechangeLanguageandsocietyThescopeofsociolinguisticsThescopeofsociolinguisticsSociolinguisticsisthesub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhich

35、theusersoflanguagelive.Speechcommunityandspeechvariety語(yǔ)言社區(qū)與語(yǔ)言變體Speechcommunityisthesocialgroupthatissingledoutforanyspecialstudy.Speechvarietyreferstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.TwoapproachestosociolinguisticstudiesMacro-sociolinguistics:thesociologyoflanguageMicro

36、-sociolinguistics:sociolinguisticsproperVarietiesoflanguageDialectalvarieties方言變體Regionaldialect地域方言Aregionaldialectisalinguisticvarietyusedbypeoplelivinginthesameregion.Sociolect社會(huì)方言Sociolecthastodowithseparationbroughtaboutbydifferentsocialconditions.即：同一地域的人說(shuō)的話(huà)也不盡相同，因?yàn)樾詣e、年齡、等級(jí)、種族等差別。Languageandge

37、nderLanguageandageIdiolect個(gè)人習(xí)語(yǔ)Idiolectisapersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombineselementsregardingregional,social,gender,andagevariations.Ethnicdialect種族方言8.2.2Register語(yǔ)域8.2.2Register語(yǔ)域HallidayRegisteristhetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituation.語(yǔ)言使用的場(chǎng)合或領(lǐng)域的總稱(chēng)語(yǔ)域的三個(gè)社會(huì)變量：

38、Field語(yǔ)場(chǎng)：話(huà)語(yǔ)范圍，是話(huà)語(yǔ)涉及的主題內(nèi)容。Tenor語(yǔ)旨：語(yǔ)言基調(diào)，是指話(huà)語(yǔ)發(fā)放者與接收者的關(guān)系，如作家與讀者。Mode語(yǔ)式：話(huà)語(yǔ)方式(口語(yǔ)形式與書(shū)面形式)。如：alectureonbiologyinatechnicalcollegecouldbeidentifiedas:Field:scientific(biological)Tenor:teacher-students(formal,polite)Mode:oral(academiclecturing)8.2.3Degreeofformality|MartinJoosintimate宣告；(2)casual;(3)consultative咨詢(xún)；(4)formal;(5)frozen刻板Standarddialect規(guī)范方言PidginandCreolePidgin洋涇浜語(yǔ):aspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.Creole:由pidgin發(fā)展而來(lái)的，有自己