英語語言學(xué)及應(yīng)用課件胡壯麟史上最全面

2022/12/2WelcometoLinguistics2022/12/1WelcometoLinguisticContents名詞解釋；學(xué)術(shù)流派對比評論；理論解釋某語言現(xiàn)象語料庫語言學(xué)、修辭學(xué)、語用學(xué)、認(rèn)知語言學(xué)、語言哲學(xué)、英漢對比語言學(xué)、語言學(xué)概論語言學(xué)理論流派流派漫談：劉潤清認(rèn)知語言學(xué)（附件）第二語言習(xí)得（附件）語料庫語言學(xué)（附件）Contents名詞解釋；學(xué)術(shù)流派對比評論；理論解釋某語言現(xiàn)2022/12/2Whydoeslanguageprovidesuchafascinatingobjectofstudy?2022/12/1Whydoeslanguagepro2022/12/2Perhapsitisbecauseitsuniqueroleincapturingthebreadthofhumanthoughtandendeavor.Welookaroundus,andareawedbythevarietyofseveralthousandlanguagesanddialects,expressingamultiplicityofworldviews,literatures,andwaysoflife.Welookbackatthethoughtsofourpredecessors,andfindwecanseeonlyasfaraslanguageletsussee.Welookforwardintime,andfindwecanplanonlythroughlanguage.Welookoutwardinspace,andsendsymbolsofcommunicationalongwithourspacecraft,toexplainwhoweare,incasethereisanyonetherewhowantstoknow.2022/12/1Perhapsitisbecause2022/12/2Alongsidethis,thereistheimportanceweattachtolanguage,asameansofunderstandingourselvesandoursociety,andofresolvingsomeoftheproblemsandtensionsthatarisefromhumaninteraction.Nosectorofsocietyisunaffected,andallcanbenefitfromthestudyofthelinguisticfactorsthatconstituteabarrier,aswellasameansofcommunication.Butlinguisticproblemsrarelyadmitsimplesolutions,anditisthiselementaryobservationsthathasledtothepresentwork.2022/12/1Alongsidethis,there2022/12/2Ormaybethereasonisinfactsimple:humanbeingsarealwayscuriousinseekingwhattheydon’tknow.Consider:Whataretakenforgrantedinourcourseoflanguageusewithoutrealizingitswonder?2022/12/1Ormaybethereasoni2022/12/2AfewQuestionsunderthestudyofLinguistics--Wheredoeslanguagecomefrom?How?When?--Whyislanguagehuman-specific?--Whycanachildlearnhis/hermothertongueinashortperiodoftime?--Howdoeslanguagechange?--Howcanpeopletalkorderly?--Howcanwesayonethingbutmeananother?--Whycanapersonspeakandunderstandasentences/hehadneverspokenorheardbefore?Etc.2022/12/1AfewQuestionsunder2022/12/2WhatislinguisticsLinguistics,thescientificstudyoflanguage,concernsitselfwithallaspectsofhowpeopleuselanguageandwhattheymustknowinordertodoso.2022/12/1Whatislinguistics2022/12/2TheDomainofLinguistics

Languageisacomplicatedentitywithmultiplelayersandfacets【解剖學(xué)】

小面

,sothelinguistshavetoconcentrateononeaspectofitatatime.Modernlinguistsconcernthemselveswithmanydifferentfacetsoflanguage,fromthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundwavesinutterancestotheintentionsofspeakerstowardsothersinconversationsandthesocialcontextsinwhichconversationsareembedded.Thebranchesoflinguisticsareconcernedwithhowlanguagesarestructured,

howlanguagesareused,andhowtheychange.Formal,humanandsocial2022/12/1TheDomainofLinguis2022/12/2ILanguageasaFormal形式的SystemThestudyofsoundswhichareusedinlinguisticcommunicationiscalledphonetics語音學(xué)

.Itstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.2022/12/1ILanguageasaForma語音學(xué)分類articulatoryphonetics(發(fā)音語音學(xué)):speaker’sproductionacousticphonetics（聲學(xué)語音學(xué)）:transmission’smediumauditoryphonetics(聽覺語音學(xué)):receiver’sreception語音學(xué)分類articulatoryphonetics(發(fā)音如何記憶phonetics和phonology的區(qū)別:聯(lián)想:mathematics,physics,mechanicsphonetics語言學(xué)，-ics科學(xué)性更強(qiáng)

geology,sociology,astrologyphonology音系學(xué)，-ology人文性更強(qiáng)如何記憶phonetics和phonology的區(qū)別:ThediagramofspeechorgansLipsTeethTeethridge(alveolar)齒齦Hardpalate硬腭Softpalate(velum)Uvula小舌TipoftongueBladeoftongue舌片BackoftongueVocalcords聲帶Pharyngealcavity咽喉腔NasalcavityThediagramofspeechorgansLHowspeechsoundsaremadeSpeechorgansHowspeechsoundsaremade英語語言學(xué)及應(yīng)用課件胡壯麟史上最全面Positionofthevocalfolds(聲帶):voicing(濁音)andvoiceless(清音)Positionofthevocalfolds(聲帶Voiceless(清音)：vocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingtheairstreamgothroughwithoutcausingobstruction清音舉例：[p,s,t]Voicing/Voiced（濁音）：vocalcordsheldtogether,lettingtheairstreamvibrates濁音:[b,z,d]Voiceless(清音)：vocalcordsareThedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream.Asthereisnoobstructionofairintheproductionofvowels,thedescriptionoftheconsonantsandvowelscannotbedonealongthesamelines.ThedistinctionbetweenvowelsTheplaceofarticulationBilabial雙唇;Labiodental唇齒的;Dentalorinterdental齒音和齒間;Alveolar齒齦音;Palatoalveolar腭齒音;Palatal腭音;Velar軟腭音;Uvular小舌音;Glottal聲門.TheplaceofarticulationBilabThediagramofsinglevowelclassificationbyapplyingthetwocriteriasofarmentioned:Thediagramofsinglevowelc2022/12/2ILanguageasaFormalSystemThestudyofhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.iscalledphonology音系學(xué).音系學(xué)重要概念:phone音子，phoneme音位(音系研究的基本單位)supra-segmentalfeatures超音段特征2022/12/1ILanguageasaFormaPhone(音子)：aphoneticunit;thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringcommunicationareallphones舉例:too和tea中的/t/發(fā)too中的/t/時,舌位更靠近口腔前部發(fā)tea中的/t/時，舌位更靠近口腔后部所以too和tea中的/t/兩個不同的音子Phone(音子)：aphoneticunit;thePhoneme(音位):phonologicalandabstractunit,aunitofdistinctivevalue;thesmallestunitofsoundinalanguagewhichcandistinguishtwowords.舉例：tea和sea,/t/和/s/是兩個不同的音位morphemePhoneme(音位):phonologicaWhatisthepointofdepartureofphonology?A.phoneB.soundC.voiceD.phonemeWhatisthepointofdepartureWhatisthepointofdepartureofphonology?A.phoneB.soundC.voiceD.phoneme(音位)WhatisthepointofdepartureWhatisthepointofdepartureofphonetics?A.phoneB.soundC.voiceD.phonemeWhatisthepointofdepartureWhatisthepointofdepartureofphonetics?A.phoneB.soundC.voiceD.phonemeWhatisthepointofdepartureSuprasegmentalfeatures(超音段特征)Suprasegmentalfeatures:phonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments

.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalsare:Suprasegmentalfeatures(超音段特征Supra-segmentalfeatures(超音段特征)：stress（重音）舉例:perfect(adj)和perfect(v)tone(聲調(diào))/pitch(音高):定義:soundfeaturewhicharecausedbythedifferingrateofvibrationofthevocalfolds.舉例:mā媽,má麻,m?馬，mà罵比較：英語單詞，如meSupra-segmentalfeatures(超音段特intonation（語調(diào)）：pitch,stress,andsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation.

intonation（語調(diào)）：pitch,stress,2022/12/2ILanguageasaFormalSystemWhilesoundsareprimaryinlinguisticcommunication,theyarerepresentedbycertainsymbols,i.e.,wordsandmorphemes語素.Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsiscalledmorphology形態(tài)學(xué).2022/12/1ILanguageasaFormaMorphology形態(tài)學(xué)1.學(xué)科定義2.語素的定義和分類3.詞的分類（classificationofwords）Morphology形態(tài)學(xué)1.學(xué)科定義形態(tài)學(xué)研究的基本單位1.morpheme(語素）.Themostbasicelementofmeaninginlanguage，anelementthatcannotbefurtherdividedintosmallerunitswithoutalteringitsmeaning.舉例：ballfootballballs形態(tài)學(xué)研究的基本單位1.morpheme(語素）.TheThedifferencebetweenroot,stem&baseAbasecanbeaddedbybothinflectional&derivationalaffixeswhileastemcanbeaddedonlybyinflectionalaffixes;Abaseisderivationallyanalyzable(e.g.undesireinundesirable)whilearootcannotbefurtheranalyzed,e.g.desireinundesirable;Root,stemandbasecanbethesameform,e.g.desireindesired;Undesirableinundesirablesiseitherastemorabase;Desirableinundesirableisonlyabase.Thedifferencebetweenroot,sMorpheme語素Freemorpheme自由語素定義：constitutewordsbythemselves舉例：girl,book,dogBoundmorpheme粘附語素Derivationalmorpheme派生語素定義：changelexicalmeaning舉例：Dis-,co-,-ful,-enInflectionalmorpheme屈折語素定義：changegrammaticalmeaning舉例:-s,-ed,-ing,,er,est定義:notoccurbythemselvesMorphemeFreemorpheme定義：constiTypesofMorphemesFreemorphemesvs.Boundmorphemes（自由語素和黏著語素）:

Freemorphemes:thosethatmayconstitutewordsbythemselves,egboy,girl,table,nation.Boundmorphemes:thosethatcannotoccuralone,eg-s,-ed,dis-,un-.TypesofMorphemesFTypesofBoundMorphemeInflectionalmorpheme(屈折語素)=inflectionalaffix(屈折詞綴)：changethegrammaticalmeaning(number,aspect,case,tense)Derivationalmorpheme（派生語素）=inflectionalaffix(派生詞綴）:changethelexicalmeaningTypesofBoundMorphemeInflectdis+like+sderivationalfreeinflectionalmorphemedis+like+slight+en+edfreederivationalinflectionalmorphemelight+en+edDerivationalmorpheme(改變詞義):前綴改變詞義：dis-,un-,multi-,micro-后綴改變詞性：en-,-full,-mentInflectionalmorpheme（改變語法含義）:改變名稱的性，數(shù)，格：-ess,-s,改變動詞的時,態(tài)，體:-ing,-ed,改變形容詞的級：-er,-estDerivationalmorpheme(改變詞義):Morpheme--theminimalunitofmeaningWordsarecomposedofmorphemes.Wordsmayconsistofonemorphemeormoremorphemes,e.g.1-morphemeboy,desire2-morphemeboy+ish,desir(e)+ble3-morphemeboy+ish+ness,desir(e)+bl(e)+ity4-morphemegentle+man+li+ness,un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity5-morphemeun+gentle+man+li+ness6-morphemeanti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ismMorpheme--theminimalunitof詞的分類-按構(gòu)詞法分wordSimpleword簡單詞Compoundword合成詞Derivationalword派生詞詞的分類-按構(gòu)詞法分wordSimplewordCompo如何區(qū)分派生詞（derivationalword）和合成詞(compoundword):拆開后看各個組成的語素能否都單獨(dú)成詞，如果可以，就是合成詞，如果不能就是派生詞。Businessman:business+manPlayboy:play+boyMouthful:mouth+fulLighten:light+en如何區(qū)分派生詞（derivationalword）和合成詞的分類-按詞義分wordGrammaticalword語法詞（functionword功能詞）定義：表達(dá)語法意義，連接舉例：prep介詞，conj連詞，art冠詞，pronoun代詞Lexicalword詞匯詞（contentword實(shí)義詞）定義：表達(dá)實(shí)際意義（物質(zhì)，動作和性質(zhì)）的詞舉例：n名詞，v動詞，adj形容詞，adv副詞詞的分類-按詞義分wordGrammaticalword詞的分類-按開放性分wordOpenclassword開放詞類定義：不斷有新詞進(jìn)入舉例：noun,adj,verb,advClosed-classword封閉詞類定義：基本沒有新詞進(jìn)入舉例:preposition,conjunction,article,pronoun詞的分類-按開放性分wordOpenclassword定詞的分類-按在句子重要性分詞類MajorpartofspeechNoun名詞Verb動詞Adjective形容詞adverb副詞preposition介詞MinorpartofspeechArticle冠詞Conjunction連詞Auxiliary助動詞詞的分類-按在句子重要性分詞類Majorpartofs詞類總結(jié)

分類方法

按構(gòu)詞法分簡單詞:dislike,light派生詞:

dislike,lighten合成詞:

cat-like,light-weight按詞義分語法詞:冠,介，代，連詞詞匯詞:名，動，形，副按開放性分開放詞:名，動，形，副封閉詞:冠,介，代，連詞按在句中重要性分主要詞類:名，動，形，副,介次要詞類：冠，代，連詞詞類總結(jié)分類方法2022/12/2ILanguageasaFormalSystemThestudiesinternalstructureofsentenceandrulesofsentence-formationcalledsyntax句法.（Generative/Functional）2022/12/1ILanguageasaFormaSyntax句法考點(diǎn)1.定義2.句法范疇3.句子類型Syntax句法考點(diǎn)1.Syntax定義：:studiesinternalstructureofsentenceandrulesofsentence-formation1.Syntax定義：:studiesinternalSyntacticalcategory(句法范疇)WordlexicalcategoryPhrasephrasalcategoryClauseclausalcategorySentenceSyntacticalcategory(句法范疇)WordLexicalCategory詞法范疇

=PartsofSpeech詞類LexicalcategoryMajorpartofspeechNoun名詞Verb動詞Adjective形容詞adverb副詞preposition介詞MinorpartofspeechArticle冠詞Conjunction連詞Auxiliary助動詞LexicalCategory詞法范疇

=Partso

分類方法

按構(gòu)詞法分簡單詞:dislike,light派生詞:

dislike,lighten合成詞:

cat-like,light-weight按詞義分語法詞:冠,介，代，連詞詞匯詞:名，動，形，副按開放性分開放詞:名，動，形，副封閉詞:冠,介，代，連詞按在句中重要性分主要詞類/范疇:名，動，形，副,介次要詞類/范疇：冠，代，連詞分類方法4.句子分類：Simplesentence簡單句Coordinatesentence并列句Complexsentence復(fù)雜句4.句子分類：simplesentence

簡單句定義：alsocalledindependentclause,containsasubjectandaverb,anditexpressesacompletethought.

simplesentence簡單句coordinatesentence并列句:containstwoindependentclausesjoinedbyacoordinator(并列連詞)suchasand,or,butetc.Coordinatorsareoftenprecededbyacomma.例句:ItriedtospeakSpanish,andmyfriendtriedtospeakEnglish.

Lilywenttoplayfootball,butMariawentshopping.coordinatesentence并列句:contaicomplexsentence定義：Acomplexsentencehasanindependentclausejoinedwithoneormoredependentclausesbyoneormoresubordinators(從屬連詞)suchasif,when,because,although.Asheisgrowingold,heseldomgoesout.Heis

growingold,whereashebecomeshealthier.如何區(qū)分并列和復(fù)雜句看連詞表示的關(guān)系

并列，選擇和轉(zhuǎn)折關(guān)系并列句時間，條件，原因和讓步關(guān)系復(fù)雜句

complexsentenceTransformational-GenerativeGrammarTransformational-GenerativeGrⅠTheBirthofTGGrammarAndtheInnatenessHypothesisⅠTheBirthofTGGrammarAndt1.Founder:AmericanlinguistNoamChomskyFullname

AvramNoamChomskyBorn7December1928(1928-12-07)Philadelphia,Pennsylvania1.Founder:AmericanlinguistNo2.ThemarkofthebeginningThepublicationofSyntacticStructuresin1957InSyntacticStructures,Chomskytriestoconstructa

"formalizedtheoryoflinguisticstructure"andplacesemphasison"rigorousformulations"and"preciselyconstructedmodels".

2.ThemarkofthebeginningThe3.Fivestagesofdevelopment1)TheClassicalTheory,whichaimstomakelinguisticsascience.

SyntacticStructures,1975

2)TheStandardTheory,whichdealswithhowsemanticsshouldbestudiedinalinguistictheoryAspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax,19653)TheExtendedStandardTheory,whichfocusesdiscussiononlanguageuniversalsanduniversalgrammar

StudiesonSemanticinGenerativeGrammar,1972

4)TheRevisedExtendedStandardTheory(orGB),whichfocusesonGovernmentandBindingLecturesonGovernmentandBinding,1981

5)TheMinimalistProgram,whichisafurtherrevisionoftheprevioustheory.

TheMinimalProgram,1995

MinimalistInquiries:TheFramework,19983.Fivestagesofdevelopment1)4.TheInnatenessHypothesis(WhyshouldtherebeaTGGrammar?)

WhenasastudentofHebrewwiththestructuralistmethodology,hefoundthattheclassificationofstructuralelementsoflanguageaccordingtodistributionandsubstitutionhaditslimitation……h(huán)ebelievesthatlanguageissomewhatinnate,andthatchildrenarebornwithwhathecallsaLanguageAcquisitionDevice,whichisauniquekindofknowledgethatfitsthemforlanguagelearningAccordingtohim,thestudyoflanguage,orthestructureoflanguage,canthrowsomelightonthenatureofthehumanmind.4.TheInnatenessHypothesis(Hypothesisisbasedonsomeimportantfacts:1).Childrenlearntheirnativelanguageveryfastandwithlittleeffort.2).Childrenlearntheirmothertongueinverydifferentenvironments,buttheyfollowmoreorlessthesamestagesinacquisition:①thebabblingstage快速模糊地發(fā)音

②nonsensewordstage③holophrastic單詞stage④two-wordutterance⑤developinggrammar⑥near-adultgrammar⑦fullcompetenceHypothesisisbasedonsomeim3)Thechildrenlearnsthetotalgrammarofthelanguageduringalimitedperiodoftime,fromlimitedexposuretospeech(whichisoftendegeneratedata)Allthesesuggestedthatalthoughbabiesarenotbornknowingalanguage,theyarebornwithaprepositiontodevelopalanguage.Ifchildrenarepredisposedforlearninganylanguage,humanlanguagesintheworldmusthavethesameunderlyingprinciplesincommon.ThisiswhatChomskycalledlanguageuniversalsorlinguisticuniversals.3)ThechildrenlearnsthetotaⅡTheClassicalTheoryandtheStandardTheoryⅡTheClassicalTheoryandthe1.HowtobeginthestudyofLanguageUniversal?1)Chomskybelievesthateveryspeakeroflanguagehasmasteredandinternalizedagenerativegrammarthatexpresseshisknowledgeofhislanguage.Andthegenerativegrammar,means“asystemofrulesthatinsomeexplicitandwell-definedwayassignsstructuraldescriptionstosentences”.2)Inordertoreachhisultimategoal,Chomskyputsforwardthreedifferentlevelstoevaluategrammarson:theobservationaladequacylevelthedescriptiveadequacyleveltheexplanatoryadequacy①Descriptiveadequacy：agrammarisamodelofnativecompetence.②Explanatoryadequacy:atheoryofLcanaccountforthephenomenaofLandmindofnativespeaker.③Observationaladequacy：一部語法若能生成某個語言樣品的全部數(shù)據(jù)，能正確預(yù)測哪些句子是合式的，就達(dá)到了觀察充分性，即布龍菲爾德式。1.HowtobeginthestudyofLa3)ContrarytoBloomfield’sdata-orienteddiscoveryprocedure,ChomskyinsistsontheHypothesis-deduction演繹methodandhisresearchiscalledevaluationprocess4)Whatisagenerativegrammar?①Byagenerativegrammar，Chomskysimplymeans“asystemofrulesthatinsomeexplicitandwell-definedwayassignsstructuraldescriptionstosentences”.Hebelievesthateveryspeakerofalanguagehasmasteredandinternalizedagenerativegrammarthatexpresseshisknowledgeofhislanguage.“Thusagenerativegrammarattemptstospecifywhatthespeakeractuallyknows，notwhathemayreportabouthisknowledge.”(Chomsky,1965)②Togenerateistopredictwhatcouldbethepossiblesentencesoflanguage.③Transformationisakindofprocessthattransformsonesentenceintoanother.Itusesafinitenumberofrulestoproduceinfinitenumberofsentences.3)ContrarytoBloomfield’sdat2.TheclassicalTheory1)Itaimstomakelinguisticsascience:2)Itsfeatures:①emphasisongenerativeabilityoflanguage②introductionoftransformationalrules③grammaticaldescriptionregardlessofmeaning3)Chomskyputforwardthreekindsofgrammar:①finitestategrammar有限狀態(tài)文法②phrasestructuregrammar③transformationalgrammarSeebelow:2.TheclassicalTheory1)ItaimThreekindsofgrammar①Thefinitestategrammarisappropriatetodescribeprocessoflearning,butitisinappropriatetoexplainthecomplexitiesofthehumancognitivesystem.Itcontainsdeepstructureandsurfacestructure.Deepstructure:theabstractrepresentationofthesyntacticpropertiesofaconstruction.Surfacestructure:thefinalstageinthesyntacticderivationofaconstruction

Threekindsofgrammar①Thefin

②Thephrasestructurerulesareasfollows:a.S→NP+VPb.VP→Verb+NPc.NP→NP(single)NP(plural)d.NP(s)→D+Ne.NP(p)→D+N+sf.D→theg.N→｛man,ball,door,dog,book,…｝

h.Verb→aux+Vi.V→｛hit,take,bite,eat,walk,…｝

j.Aux→Tense(+M)(+have+en)(+be+ing)k.Tense→PresentPastl.M→｛will,can,may,shall,must,…｝②Thephrasestructurerules

NPArtNPPPNPArtNPPPNPArtNPPPNPArtNPP

Thehouseinthewoodsbythemountainsneartheriver…embeddingNPThehousei③Transformationalrules(T-rules)aretheoperationsthatadd,deleteorchangeelementsinonestructuretoproduceanotherstructure.Itreferstoalltherulesthatapplyafteralllexiconitemshavebeeninsertedintothestructures.TwoobligatoryT-rules:Flip-flop起落rule(FFrule，affix-transformational/shifting/hoppingrule):theaffixandverbareshiftedinorder.2.Lexicalformationrule(LFrule):Itrequiresthelexiconthatdeterminethelastappearanceofthesentence.③Transformationalrules(T-rulTheGenerativeProcessofASentence(NP(Det(the)N(man)VP(V(hit)NP(Det(the)N(ball))))SNPVPDetNVerbNP

DetNthemanhittheball英語語言學(xué)及應(yīng)用課件胡壯麟史上最全面4)Somedefectsinthetheory①Thetransformationalrulesaretoopowerful.②Therulesmaygenerateill-formedsentencesaswellaswell-formedones.Forexample,withtherulesSNP+VP,andVPV+NP,theremightbegeneratedthefollowingtwo:SSNPVPNPVPVNPVNPJohndrinkwinewinedrinkJohn③Thetransformationalrulesforthepassivevoicecannotbeusedatwill,forsomeoftheEnglishverbsdonothavepassivestructures.4)Somedefectsinthetheory

SNPAuxVP

DetNPPThemotheroftheboyandthegirlwillarrivesoon.S

NPAuxVPNPNPThemotheroftheboyandthegirlwillarrivesoon.④phrasestructureistooflexible（歧義句）

3.ThestandardTheory1)Chomskysaysthatagenerativegrammarshouldconsistofthreecomponents:syntactic,phonologicalandsemantic.Therelationshipsofthethreecomponentscanbeillustratedbythefollowingdiagram:

3.ThestandardTheory1)ChomskyBaseComponentRewritingRulesLexiconDeepStructureT-RulesSurfaceStructureSemanticComponentPhonologicalRulesSemanticRepresentationPhonologicalRepresentationBaseComponentRewritingRules2)ItsadvantagesovertheClassicalTheory①Transformationcanonlychangetheformsofsentencesandarenotallowedtoalterthemeaning.②ToruleoutthegenerationofsentenceslikeWinedrinksJohn,thereisnowaselectionalrestrictiontoensurethattheanimatenounappearsbeforetheverbandinanimatenounappearaftertheverb.③Restrictionsareputontransformationsinordernottogenerateill-formedsentences.④Accordingtore-writingrules,sentencescanbeembedded,thus,thetheorynowcoversnotonlysimplesentencesbutalsocomplexones.⑤Theruleareproperlyorderedandthereisasetorderinwhichtherulesapply.2)ItsadvantagesovertheClas3)Problemsunsolvedinthetheory①Thetransformationalrulesarestilltoopowerful,fortheycanmoveordeletelinguisticsegments,changethecategories,keeptheoriginalmeaningintact,andaccordingtospecificcircumstances.②Derivednounsandtheircorrespondingverbsareirregularnotonlyintermsofsyntacticfeatures,butalsoinphonologicalandsemanticrelations,whichisignoredintheStandardTheory.3)Problemsunsolvedinthethe③TheStandardTheoryholdsthatsemanticinterpretationsaredeterminedbythedeepstructure,andtransformationalprocesswillnotchangethesentencemeaning.Laterthiswasfoundtobeimpossible.④TheStandardTheorycannotexplaingappedstructuresas:Johnatesomespaghetti,andMarysomemacaroni.⑤Investigationsofmoretypeofrulesshowedthatmanytransformationalrulesmusthavecomplexconstraintsinorderthattheydonotproduceungrammaticalsentences.③TheStandardTheoryholdsthaⅢ.TheExtendedStandardTheoryandLaterTheoriesⅢ.TheExtendedStandardTheory1.TheExtendedStandardTheory1)IntheExtendedStandardTheory,ChomskyrevisedhisStandardTheorytwice.2)Inhisfirstrevision,Chomskymovedpartofsemanticinterpretationtothesurfacestructure.3)Thesecondrevisioninvolvesthewholetheoreticalframework,whichcanbeillustratedbythefollowingdiagram.*ThemostremarkablechangeisthatChomskynowcompletelyputssemanticinterpretationinthesurfacestructure.1.TheExtendedStandardTheory

Phrasestructure;Lexicon

TheTransformationalComponentPhonologicalRulesSemanticInterpretativeRulesTheBaseComponentDeepStructureSurfaceStructurePhonologicalRepresentationLogicalFormRepresentationTheBaseComponentDeepStru2.GovernmentandBinding1)ThistheoryconsistsofX-barTheory,θ-Theory,BoundingTheory,GovernmentTheory,CaseTheory,ControlTheory,andBindingTheory.2)InthetheoryofGovernmentandBinding,thereisanewconcept:theemptycategory.Chomskybelievesthatthroughtheemptycategory,wecanfurthergettoknowaboutthemechanismoflanguage.Butthistheoryisnotyetmature.2.GovernmentandBinding1)This

C-command(Constituentcommand)

γA

ΑβBC

DEF

αc-commandsβifαdoesnotdominateβandeveryγthatdominatesαalsodominatesβ.(Bc-commandsC,E,F,butnotD;Cc-commandsB,D,butnotE,F.)

C-command(Constituentcomma

VPVPPPNPDetNspeakaboutthelanguage(Vc-commandsPP,PPalsoc-commandsV.)“c-command”referstotherelationbetweenanelementandanotherofthesamenode節(jié)inatreediagram,andanyothersunderthelatterelementsaswell.（C-command同級及同級的下屬）VPBindingTheory

A.Ananaphor復(fù)指詞;照應(yīng)語

isboundinitsgoverningcategory.B.Apronominal代詞性的

isfreeinitsgoverningcategory.C.Anr-expressionisfreeBindingreferstotherelationbetweendifferentreferringwordandthesubjectof