超級強化b-講義lv1翻譯

Themoleculesofcarbon?ThemoleculesofcarbondioxideintheEarth’satmosphereaffecttheheatbalanceoftheEarthbyactingasaone-wayscreen.?Althoughthesemoleculesallowradiationatvisiblewavelengths,wheremostoftheenergyofsunlightisconcentrated,topassthrough,theyabsorbsomeofthelonger-wavelength,infraredemissionsradiatedfromtheEarth’ssurface,radiationthatwouldotherwisebetransmittedbackintospace.?FortheEarthtomaintainaconstantaveragetemperature,suchemissionsfromtheplanetmustbalance ingsolarradiation.?Iftherewerenocarbondioxideintheatmosphere,heatwouldescapefromtheEarthmuchmoreeasily.?Thesurfacetemperaturewouldbesomuchlowerthattheoceansmightbeasolidmassofice.?地球大氣層中的二氧化碳分子會作為一種單向熱量過濾網(wǎng)(one-wayscreen)來影響地球上的熱平衡。?雖然二氧化碳分子允許光能量最集中的可見光通從地球發(fā)出的輻射能必須和輻射能相平衡。?如果在大氣中沒有二氧化?Today,however,thepotentialproblemistoomuchcarbondioxide.?Theburningoffossilfuelsandtheclearingofforestshaveincreasedatmosphericcarbondioxidebyabout15percentinthelasthundredyears,andwecontinuetoaddcarbondioxidetotheatmosphere.?Couldtheincreaseincarbondioxidecauseaglobalriseinaveragetemperature,andcouldsucharisehaveseriousconsequencesforhumansociety??Mathematicalmodelsthatallowustocalculatetheriseintemperatureasafunctionoftheincreaseindicatethattheanswerisprobablyyes.(fossilfuel)15%，而我們現(xiàn)氣溫升高，以及氣溫的升高是否會對人類社會產(chǎn)生嚴重呢？?我們可以把?Underpresentconditionsatemperatureof-18℃canbeobservedatanaltitudeof5to6kilometersabovetheEarth.?Belowthisaltitude(calledtheradiatinglevel),thetemperatureincreasesbyabout6℃perkilometerapproachingtheEarth’ssurface,wheretheaveragetemperatureisabout15℃.?Anincreaseintheamountofcarbondioxidemeansthattherearemoremoleculesofcarbondioxidetoabsorbinfraredradiation.?Asthecapacityoftheatmospheretoabsorbinfraredradiationincreases,theradiatinglevelandthetemperatureofthesurfacemustrise.?5-618℃（這個海拔以下叫做輻射高度。?高度每下降1千米，氣溫上升約6℃，地表平均溫度約為15攝氏度。?而二氧化碳含量增加意味著有二氧化碳分子來吸收紅外輻射能。?隨著大?Onemathematicalmodelpredictsthatdoublingtheatmosphericcarbondioxidewouldraisetheglobalmeansurfacetemperatureby2.5℃.?Thismodelassumesthattheatmosphere’srelativehumidityremainsconstantandthetemperaturedecreaseswithaltitudeatarateof6.5℃perkilometer.?Theassumptionofconstantrelativehumidityisbecausewatervaporintheatmosphereisanotherefficientabsorberofradiationatinfraredwavelengths.?Becausewarmaircanholdmoremoisturethancoolair,therelativehumiditywillbeconstantonlyiftheamountofwatervaporintheatmosphereincreasesasthetemperaturerises.?Therefore,moreinfraredradiationwouldbeabsorbedandreradiatedbacktotheEarth’ssurface.?Theresultantwarmingatthesurfacecouldbeexpectedtomeltsnowandice,reducingtheEarth’sreflectivity.?Moresolarradiationwouldthenbeabsorbed,leadingtoafurtherincreaseintemperature.?51.2.6.5中的水蒸氣也會高效吸收紅外波長的輻射。?由于熱空氣比冷空氣可以容納更會保持不變。?因此，紅外輻射會被吸收然后被反射回地表。?隨之而來的地表變暖會熔化冰雪減少地球?qū)崮艿姆瓷?的輻射能會被吸收這導致了地表溫度進一步的增加。AllofFrancoise?AllofFrancoiseDuparc’ssurvivingpaintingsblendportraitureandgenre.?Hersubjectsappeartobeacquaintanceswhomshehasaskedtopose;shehascapturedboththeirself-consciousnessandthespontaneityoftheireverydayactivities,thedepictionofwhichcharacterizesgenrepainting.?Butgenrepainting,especiallywhenitportrayedmembersofthehumblestclasses,wasneverpopularineighteenth-centuryFrance.?TheLeNainbrothersandGeorgesdeLaTour,whoalsochosesuchthemes,werelargelyignored.?Theirpresenthighstandingisduetoadifferent,moredemocraticpoliticalclimateandtodifferentaestheticvalues:wenolongerrequireartiststoprovideidealimagesofhumanityforourmoraledificationbutratherregardsuchidealizationasafalsificationofthetruth.?Duparcgivesnoimprovingmessageanddiscreetlyrefrainsfromjudginghersubjects.?Inbrief,herworksneitherelevatenorinstruct.?Thisrestraintlargelyexplainsherlackofpopularsuccessduringherlifetime,evenifhertalentdidnotgocompleyunrecognizedbyhereighteenth-centuryFrenchcontemporaries.，但是風俗畫，特別是描繪最下層的作品，在18世紀的法國并沒有受到人們的關注。?選擇了相同題材的LeNain兄弟以及GeorgesdeLaTour也們忽略了?他們目前很高的地位是來源于一個截然不同的更為的政治環(huán)境以的啟迪，而且把這種理想化處理看作對真理的錯誤解讀。?Duparc沒有美化她的作品，而且謹慎地避免評價作品。?簡而言之作品既沒有升華也沒有。?雖然天賦沒有被18世紀的法國同時代的人完全忽視，但這種克制很大程度上解釋了作品在她有生之年沒有受青睞的原因。，PauleMarshall’sBrown?PauleMarshall’sBrownGirl,Brownstones(1959)wasalandmarkinthedepictionoffemalecharactersinBlackAmericanliterature.?MarshallavoidedtheoppressedandtragiceinwithWhitesocietythathadbeentypicalofthenovelsoftheearlytwentiethcentury.?Likeherimmediatepredecessors,ZoraNealeHurstonandGwendolynBrooks,shefocusedhernovelonanordinaryBlackwoman’ssearchforidentitywithinthecontextofaBlackcommunity.?ButMarshallextendedtheysisofBlackfemalecharactersbegunbyHurstonandBrooksbydepictinghere’sdevelopmentintermsoftherelationshipbetweenherBarbadianAmericanparents,andbyexploringhowmaleandfemalerolesweredefinedbytheirimmigrantculture,whichinturnwasinfluencedbythematerialismofWhiteAmerica.?Byplacingcharacterswithinawiderculturalcontext,Marshallattackedracialandsexualstereotypesandpavedthewayforexplorationsofrace,class,andgenderinthenovelsofthe1970’s.人物的里程碑式作品。?Marshall避開了20世紀初期小說中被的、悲慘的女主角與白人社會之間的典型。?和前輩ZoraNealeHurston以及GwendolynBrooks一樣小說聚焦在普通婦女在社會中尋求認同感的描寫上。?但是Marshall通過描繪女主人公和她從巴巴多斯島到的隨之被白人的物質(zhì)主義影響延伸了Hurston和Brooks創(chuàng)造的對于黑了有關種族和的陳規(guī)陋習，并且為20世紀70年代的小說中種族、階層以及BeforeLauraGilpin(1891-?BeforeLauraGilpin(1891-1979),fewwomeninthehistoryofphotographyhadsodevotedthemselvestochroniclingthelandscape.?Otherwomenhadphotographedtheland,butnonecanberegardedasalandscapephotographerwithasustainedbodyofworkingthephysicalterrain.?AnneBrigmanoftenphotographedwoodlandsandcoastalcareas,buttheyweregenerallysettingsforherartfullyplacedsubjects.?DorotheaLange’slandscapeswerealwaysconceivedofascounterpartstoherportraitsofruralwomen.?Laurapin(18911979)(landpe)。?其他女性的確也進行陸地攝影，但沒有人能被看作高水平、實地描述自然環(huán)境作品的風景攝影師。?nneBrigmn通常拍攝森林和海岸地區(qū)，但這些風景不過是她精心為拍攝對象而安排的。?orotheaLange作品通常被認為是鄉(xiāng)下婦女肖像的陪襯。?AtthesametimethatGilpin’sinterestinlandscapeworkdistinguishedherfrommostotherwomenphotographers,herapproachtolandscapephotographysetherapartfrommenphotographerswho,likeGilpin, edthewesternUnitedStates.?WesternAmericanlandscapephotographygrewoutofamaletradition,pioneeredbyphotographersattachedtoernmentandcommercialsurveyteamsthatwentwestinthe1860’sand1870’s.explorer-photographersedtheWestthattheiremployerswantedtosee:anexoticandmajesticlandshapedbyawesomenaturalforces,unpopulatedandreadyforAmericansettlement.?Thenextgenerationofmalephotographers,representedbyAnselAdamsandEliotPorter,oftenworkedwithconservationistgroupsratherthan ernmentagenciesorcommercialcompanies,buttheynonethelesspthe“heroic”styleandmaintainedtheroleofrespectfuloutsiderpeeringinwithreverenceatafragilenaturalworld.?在Gilpin對于風景作品的使她從其他女性攝影師中脫穎而出的同時陸地攝影方法和攝影師的方法大不相同，這些攝影師和in一樣都在記錄西部?西部風景攝影是的傳統(tǒng)由那些19世紀60、70年代去西部的和商業(yè)團隊的攝影師發(fā)揚光大。?這些探險攝影師記偉的土地，這片土地人煙稀少，等待人們開發(fā)。?l和Eliotr為代表常常與環(huán)境保護主義團隊合作而不是與機構或商業(yè)“崇高”敬畏的眼光凝視著脆弱的自然界。?ForGilpin,bycontrast,thelandscapewasneitheranemptyvistaawaitinghumansettlementnorajewel-likesceneresistinghumanintrusion,butapeopledlandscapewitharichhistoryandtraditionofitsown,anenvironmentthatshapedandmoldedthelivesofitsinhabitants.?HerphotographsoftheRioGrande,forexample,consistentlydepicttheriverintermsofitssignificancetohumanculture:asasourceofirrigationwater,asourceoffoodforlivestock,andaprovideroftownsites.?AlsoinstructiveisGilpin’sgeneralavoidanceofextremeclose-upsofhernaturalsubjects:forher,emblematicdetailscouldneversuggesttheintricaciesoftheinterrelationshipbetweenpeopleandnaturethatmadethelandscapeacompellingsubject.?Whileitisdangeroustodrawconclusionsabouta“feminine”wayofseeingfromtheworkofonewoman,itcannonethelessbearguedthatGilpin’suniqueapproachtolandscapephotographywas ogoustotheworkofmanywomenwriterswho,farmorethantheirmalecounterparts,describedthelandscapeintermsofitspotentialtosustainhumanlife.?Gilpin來說，陸地景觀既不是一片等待人類開發(fā)的、空洞的景色，也不是像珠寶般人類的景色，而是一片有著豐富歷史和傳統(tǒng)的陸她從始至終根據(jù)它對人類文化的重要性來描繪河流：一個作為灌溉水的、一避免用特寫鏡頭來拍攝大自然的對象：對她來說，象征性的細節(jié)不能表達人得出用“女性化”的角度來去觀察的結論是的但它可以展示Gilpin獨特的風?Gilpinneverspokeofherselfasaphotographerwithafeminine:sheeschewedanydiscussionofgenderasitrelatedtoherworkandmaintainedlittleinterestininterpretationsthatreliedontheconceptofa“woman’seye.”?Thusitisironicthatherphotographicevocationofahistoricallandscapeshouldsoclearlypresentadistinctivelyfeminineapproachtolandscapephotography.何有關的討論而且她對那些依靠“女人眼睛”的概念所做出的解釋沒有一Thesocialsciencesare?Thesocialsciencesarelesslikelythanotherinlectualenterprisestogetcreditfortheirplishments.?Arguably,thisissobecausethetheoriesandconceptualconstructsofthesocialsciencesareespeciallyaccessible:humanin ligenceapprehendstruthsabouthumanaffairswithparticularfacility.?Andthediscoveriesofthesocialsciences,onceisolatedandlabeled,arequicklyabsorbedintoconventionalwisdom,whereupontheylosetheirdistinctivenessasscientificadvances.?Thisunderappreciationofthesocialsciencescontrastsoddlywithwhatmanyseeastheiroverutilization.?Gametheoryispressedintoserviceinstudiesofshiftinginternationalalliances.?Evaluationresearchiscalledupontodemonstratesuccessesorfailuresofsocialprograms.?Modelsfromeconomicsanddemography ethedefinitivetoolsforexaminingthefinancialbaseofsocialsecurity.?Yetthisrushintopracticalapplicationsisitselfquiteunderstandable:publicpolicymustcontinuallybemade,andpolicymakersrightlyfeelthatevententativefindingsanduntestedtheoriesarebetterguidestodecision-makingthannofindingsandnotheoriesatall.Inarecentstudy,David?Inarecentstudy,DavidCressyexaminestwocentralquestionsconcerningEnglishimmigrationtoNewEnglandinthe1630’s:whatkindsofpeopleimmigratedandwhy??Usingcontemporaryliteraryevidence,shiplists,andcustomsrecords,Cressyfindsthatmostadultimmigrantswereskilledinfarmingorcrafts,wereliterate,andwereorganizedinfamilies.?Eachofthesecharacteristicssharplydistinguishesthe21,000peoplewholeftforNewEnglandinthe1630’sfrommostoftheapproxima y377,000EnglishpeoplewhohadimmigratingtoAmericaby1700.格蘭的活動中兩個關鍵問題：即什么樣的人，以及他們?yōu)槭裁匆?Cressy利用當代、海運和記錄中，發(fā)現(xiàn)絕大多數(shù)成年者的。?以上每一個特征鮮明地區(qū)分了17世紀30年代到新英格蘭的21,000人和1700年左右到的約377,000英國人。?Withrespecttotheirreasonsforimmigrating,Cressydoesnotdenythefrequentlynotedfactthatsomeoftheimmigrantsofthe1630’s,mostnotablytheorganizersandclergy,religiousexplanationsfordeparture,buthefindsthatsuchexplanationsusuallyassumedprimacyonlyinretrospect.?Whenhemovestheprincipalactors,hefindsthatreligiousexplanationswerelessfrequentlyofferedandheconcludesthatmostpeopleimmigratedbecausetheywererecruitedbypromisesofmaterialimprovement.30年代中的一些人，特別是那些組織者和神職人員，提出了動機的宗The1960’switnessedtwo?The1960’switnessedtwoprofoundsocialmovements:thecivilrightsmovementandthemovementingthewarinVietnam.?Althoughtheyoverlappedintime,theywerelargelydistinct.?Forabriefmomentin1967,however,itappearedthatthetwomovementsmightuniteundertheleadershipofMartinLutherKing,Jr.?20世紀60年代了兩場意義深遠的：民權運動(civilrightsmovement)和反越戰(zhàn)(warinVietnam)運動。?盡管兩者在時間上有，但它們?nèi)杂泻艽蟛町悺?1967年中的一段短暫時間里，這兩項運動有可能都是由MartinLutherKing,Jr.的。?King’sroleintheantiwarmovementappearstorequirelittleexplanation,sincehewastheforemostadvocateofnon ofhistime.?ButKing’sstanceontheVietnamWarcannotbeexplainedintermsofpacifismalone.?Afterall,hewassomethingofa totheantiwarmovement,eventhoughby1965hewasconvincedthattheroleoftheUnitedStatesinthewarwasindefensible.?Whythenthetwoyearsthatpassedbeforehetranslatedhisprivatemisgivingsintopublicdissent??PerhapshebelievedthathecouldnotcriticizeAmericanforeignpolicywithoutendangeringthesupportforcivilrightsthathehadwonfromthefederal ?作為他那個時代最杰出的非擁護者，King在反越戰(zhàn)運動中的地位毋庸置疑。?但King對越戰(zhàn)的立場不能單靠和平主釋。?盡管早在1965年他就確信在越戰(zhàn)中的角色是站不住腳的但畢竟他在一定程度上是反越戰(zhàn)運動的后為他對于政策的批評會危及到他從那里贏得的對民權運動的支持。Nationalcharacterisnot?Nationalcharacterisnotformallyconsideredbysocialscientistsindiscussingeconomicandsocialdevelopmenttoday.?Theybelievethatpeopledifferandthatthesedifferencesshouldbetakenintoaccountsomehow,buttheyhaveasyetdiscoverednowaytoincludesuchvariablesintheirformalmodelsofeconomicandsocialdevelopment.?Thedifficultyliesinthenatureofthedatathatsupposedlydefinedifferentnationalcharacters.?Anthropologistsandothersareonmuchfirmergroundwhentheyattempttodescribetheculturalnormsforasmallhomogeneoustribeorvillagethanwhentheyundertaketheformidabletaskofdiscoveringthenormsthatexistinacomplexmodernnation-statecomposedofmanydisparategroups.?Thesituationisfurthercomplicatedbythenatureofjudgmentsaboutcharacter,suchjudgmentsareoverlydependentonimpressionsandsince,furthermore,impressionsareusuallystatedinqualitativeterms,itisimpossibletomakeareliablecomparisonbetweenthenationalcharactersoftwocountries.?如今當社會學家討論經(jīng)濟和發(fā)展時，國民性格(Nationalcharacter)做的在于被用來定義不同國民性格的數(shù)據(jù)的性質(zhì)?當人類學家和其他學家Comparingdesignsinmusic?Comparingdesignsinmusicwithvisualdesignsraisesinterestingquestions.?Wearefamiliarwiththeeasytransfersoftermsdenotingqualitiesfromonefieldtoanother.?Thebasicproblemcanbeputthisway:canmusicsoundthewayadesignlooks??Theelementsofmusicarenotthesameasthoseofpainting.?Theymaybe ogous,buttobe isnottobeidentical.?Isitpossible,then,forthesamebroadcharacteristicstoemergefromdifferentperceptualconditions?但類似不是相同。?那么，有沒有這樣的可能，即相同的廣泛特征在不同的?Twofactsabouttherelationbetweenbroadcharacteristicsofaworkandtheirperceptualconditionsmustbek