概念考察與認(rèn)知工具

概念考察與認(rèn)知工具

西南大學(xué)杜世洪12/6/2023Du2/6/2023Du2/6/2023Du聲明：1.本講座屬于方法論的講座，目的并不局限在語(yǔ)言實(shí)例本身的描寫與解釋上，更重要的是要注意做實(shí)例分析時(shí)所沿用的方法。2.不要局限在本講座提及的方法上，更重要的是要從這些方法中得到某些啟示。3.Imaybewrong,youmayberight,andbyaneffort,wemaygetnearertothetruth.—KarlPopper.本講座希望達(dá)到的目標(biāo)1.聽完講座后，對(duì)“概念”有點(diǎn)專門的概念。2.聽完講座后，對(duì)常見的“認(rèn)知工具”有點(diǎn)認(rèn)識(shí)。3.聽完講座后，對(duì)日常語(yǔ)言中的一些現(xiàn)象多一點(diǎn)認(rèn)識(shí)。提要0.語(yǔ)言現(xiàn)象的困惑1.語(yǔ)言概念的界定2.概念考察的工具3.認(rèn)知工具的運(yùn)用

42/6/2023Du0.語(yǔ)言現(xiàn)象的困惑看看下列句子，回答幾個(gè)問(wèn)題：你讀得懂它們嗎？你很確定它們的意義嗎？你有什么困惑沒(méi)有？0.語(yǔ)言現(xiàn)象的困惑1）王冕死了父親vs王冕讀了研究生。2）芙蓉姐姐想當(dāng)電影明星。3）我們要推選一名副校長(zhǎng)vs我要買輛寶馬X6。4）這個(gè)老師像個(gè)人。5）阿Q沒(méi)結(jié)婚，光棍兒一個(gè)。6）你我有相同的轎車vs你我有相同的未婚妻。7）你是我唯一信賴過(guò)的人。8）我就是我，是顏色不一樣的煙火。9）“我吃過(guò)晚飯了”翻譯成“Ihadmysupper”對(duì)嗎？要準(zhǔn)確理解，就要有系統(tǒng)的方法和正確的工具！方法概括：明類、知故、曉理！如題入題1.語(yǔ)言概念的界定1.0什么是概念？1.1概念的常見表現(xiàn)形式有哪些？1.2為什么要進(jìn)行概念考察？1.3什么是“認(rèn)知”呢？1.0什么是概念？本體論問(wèn)題依靠認(rèn)識(shí)論的方法來(lái)回答。概念是cognitivescience,cognitivelinguistics,sociology,computerscience,logicandphilosophyoflanguage等領(lǐng)域的核心內(nèi)容.1.0什么是概念？民間的觀點(diǎn)：Concept——概念、觀念、思想；總的印象、思維的產(chǎn)物，發(fā)明，創(chuàng)造等用法上：Newconcept;basicconcept;designconcept;marketingconcept;conceptmap;conceptfoods…重慶人的話：那是啥子慨念啰？……循環(huán)？清楚嗎？專家的看法呢？1.0什么是概念？康德（Kant）認(rèn)為：我們的reason必須具備什么樣的structure、capacities和concepts，我們才能進(jìn)行認(rèn)知活動(dòng)，如進(jìn)行數(shù)學(xué)運(yùn)算、判斷等。（Melchert1999:436）‘Intuitionandconceptsconstitute,therefore,theelementsofknowledge’.（Kant,CPR,92）“Thoughtswithoutcontentareempty,andintuitionwithoutconceptsareblind.”（Kant,CPR,93）康德（Kant）認(rèn)為：康德對(duì)concept的界定是：Aconcept,Kanttellsus,isakindofruleforoperatingonintuitions.（Melchert1999:441）在康德看來(lái)，Tohaveaconceptistohaveanability.1.0什么是概念？專家的觀點(diǎn)：GillesFauconnierandMarkTurner：ConceptualblendingConceptual

blendingisafundamentalinstrumentoftheeverydaymind,usedinourbasicconstrualofallourrealities,fromthesocialtothescientific.(Turner,M.1997.TheLiteraryMind.OxfordUP,p.93)1.0什么是概念？學(xué)者的觀點(diǎn)：GeorgeLakoffandMarkJohnson：Conceptualsystem“Ourordinaryconceptual

system,intermsofwhichweboththinkandact,isfundamentallymetaphoricalinnature.”(Lakoff,G.andJohnson,M.1980.MetaphorsWeLiveby.TheUniversityofChicagoPress,p.3)Howisourconceptualsystemgrounded?“Weclaimthatmostofournormalconceptual

systemismetaphoricallystructured;thatismostconceptsarepartiallyunderstoodintermsofotherconcepts.”(Lakoff,G.andJohnson,M.1980:p56)1.0什么是概念？“Theprimecandidatesforconceptsthatareunderstooddirectlyarethesimplespatialconcepts,suchasUP,…UP-DOWN,FRONT-BACK,IN-OUT,NEAR-FAR.”(Lakoff,G.andJohnson,M.1980:p56)“Therefore,wheneverinthisbookwespeakofmetaphors,suchasARGUMENTISWAR,itshouldbeunderstoodthatmetaphor

means

metaphorical

concept.”

(Lakoff,G.andJohnson,M.1980:p6)這里看出：概念既表現(xiàn)為詞，又表現(xiàn)為語(yǔ)句。1.0什么是概念？學(xué)者的觀點(diǎn)：EdwardE.Smith,1998Incognitivepsychologyandphilosophyofmind,conceptsareassumedtobethebasicconstituentsofthoughtandbelief.Inlinguisticsthestudyofwordmeaningsorlexicalrepresentationsofteninvolvesthestudyofthoseconceptsthatarecodedbysinglewords.Andinartificialintelligence,moreoftenthannot,proposalsaboutknowledgerepresentationsareproposalsaboutconcepts.Moreoverineachofthesedisciplinesconceptsareintimatelylinkedtotheprocessofdrawinginductiveinferences.(EdwardE.Smith,1998,ConceptsandInduction.InFoundationsofCognitiveSciences,ed.ByM.Posner,pp501-526)1.0什么是概念？學(xué)者的觀點(diǎn)：JerryA.Fodor:WhatConceptsHavetoBe?Twoofitsmainthesesare:—thatifyouaregoingtorunarepresentational/computationaltheoryofmind(thatis,anyversionofRTM;seeChapter1)youwillneedatheory

of

concepts.And:—thatnoneofthetheoriesofconceptsthatarecurrentlytakenatallseriouslyeitherincognitivescienceorinphilosophycanconceivablyfillthebill.(Fodor,J.A.1998.Concepts:WhereCognitiveScienceWentWrong.OxfordUP,p23)1.0什么是概念？

JerryA.Fodor:WhatConceptsHavetoBe?Conceptsarementalparticulars;specifically,theysatisfywhateverontologicalconditionshavetobemetbythingsthatfunctionasmentalcausesandeffects.Conceptsarecategoriesandareroutinelyemployedassuch.Compositionality:conceptsaretheconstituentsofthoughtsand,inindefinitelymanycases,ofoneanother.Mentalrepresentationsinherittheircontentsfromthecontentsoftheirconstituents.Quitealotofconceptsmustturnouttobelearned.Conceptsarepublic;they'rethesortsofthingsthatlotsofpeoplecan,anddo,share.1.0什么是概念？EdouardMachery(inConceptsandFuzzyLogic2011.TheMITPress)Inpsychologyandinrelateddisciplines(e.g.,cognitiveneuroscience,AI),aconceptofx(e.g.,aconceptofdog)isusuallytakentobeabody

of

knowledge

about

x(e.g.,dogs)thatisusedbydefaultinthecognitiveprocessesthatunderwritemosthighercognitivecompetenceswhenwemakeajudgmentaboutx(e.g.,ajudgmentaboutdogs).Thus,aconcept

of

xisasubsetoftheknowledgeaboutxwestoreinlong-termmemory;or,toputitdifferently,onlypartofourknowledgeaboutxconstitutesourconceptofx.1.0什么是概念？RayJackendoff:WhatIsaConcept,ThataPersonMayGraspIt?E-ConceptsandI-ConceptsThereisafundamentaltensionintheordinarylanguagetermconcept.Ononehand,itissomethingoutthereintheworld:"theNewtonianconceptofmass"issomethingthatisspokenofasthoughitexistsindependentlyofwhoactuallyknowsorgraspsit.Likewise,"graspingaconcept"evokescomparisontograspingaphysicalobject,exceptthatonesomehowdoesitwithone'smindinsteadofone'shand.Ontheotherhand,aconceptisspokenofasanentitywithinone'shead,aprivateentity,aproductoftheimaginationthatcanbeconveyedtoothersonlybymeansoflanguage,gesture,drawing,orsomeotherimperfectmeansofcommunication.(Concepts:Corereadings,1999,p282)1.0什么是概念？RussellFregeConcept=Logicalpropername+PropertiesAconcepthascontainedasetofpropositions.至此，感覺有點(diǎn)亂？？1.1概念的常見表現(xiàn)形式有哪些？ConceptsasdefinitionConceptsasprototypeConceptsasschemaorframeConceptsasproposition1.1概念的常見表現(xiàn)形式有哪些？Conceptsasdefinition:Theclassicalview:TypicallytohaveaconceptofXistoknowsomethingaboutthepropertiesofX'sinstances.Hencewhatisrepresentedinaconceptispresumablyinformationaboutproperties.

說(shuō)這個(gè)經(jīng)典，是因?yàn)锳ristotle持這樣的觀點(diǎn)。1.1概念的常見表現(xiàn)形式有哪些？Anoldandinfluentialideaisthatthepropertiesthatcompriseaconceptaresinglynecessaryandjointlysufficienttodefinetheconcept.

Forapropertytobesinglynecessary,everyinstanceoftheconceptmusthaveit;forasetofpropertiestobejointlysufficient,everyentityhavingthatsetmustbeaninstanceoftheconcept.比如：Grandmother的概念屬性：[+old,-male,+parent]1.1概念的常見表現(xiàn)形式有哪些？Howtospecifydefiningproperties?Universal?老虎的定義特征是什么呢？條紋、肉食、貓科？TypicalityEffects1.1概念的常見表現(xiàn)形式有哪些？Anumberofexperimentalfindingsabouthowpeopleusenatural-kindconceptsareproblematicfortheclassicalview.Peoplecanreliablyordertheinstancesofanyconceptwithrespecttohow"typical"or"representative"theyareoftheconcept.1.1典型特征認(rèn)知實(shí)驗(yàn)數(shù)據(jù)FruitRating(0-7)Apple6.25Grape5.13Watermelon4.06Coconut3.06Olive2.26BirdRating(0-7)Robin6.89Swallow6.16Owl5.0Chicken3.95Penguin2.631.1概念的常見表現(xiàn)形式有哪些？ConceptsasPrototypesUndertheprototypeviewanobjectiscategorizedasaninstanceofaconceptifitissufficientlysimilartotheprototype,

similaritybeingdeterminedinpartbythenumberofpropertiesthattheobjectandprototypeshare.IllustrationsofHowtoUseListedPropertiestoCalculateanInstance'sSimilaritytoPrototypePropertiesrobinswallowvulturechickenpenguinflies+++--sings++---layseggs++-++small++---nestsintree+++--eatinsects++---Similaritytobird66-2-4-41.2為什么要進(jìn)行概念考察？概念通過(guò)語(yǔ)言表達(dá)式呈現(xiàn)出來(lái)。但是，一個(gè)語(yǔ)言表達(dá)式并不等于一個(gè)概念。一個(gè)概念是多種屬性的復(fù)合體或者說(shuō)集合。所以，對(duì)一個(gè)語(yǔ)言表達(dá)式的解讀，勢(shì)必要借助于相應(yīng)的認(rèn)知工具。常見的認(rèn)知工具有哪些呢？認(rèn)知工具？什么是cognition?Whatiscognition?theacquisitionofknowledgethroughperceptionandexperience,theorganizationofknowledgeintomentalstructures;theconsciousorunconsciousinterpretationofexperiencesonthebasisofpreviouslystoredknowledgeandmentaloperations.

Inshort,cognitionis

thewaywethink!試比較：什么是

cognitivelinguistics?Cognitive

linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguageinrelationtohumancognition;orthescientificstudyoftherelationbetweenthewaywecommunicateandthewaywethink.2.概念考察的工具0）認(rèn)知描寫與認(rèn)知解釋（cognitivedescriptionandexplanation）1）類與例（TypeandToken)2）分析與綜合（AnalyticandSynthetic）3）必然與偶然（NecessaryandContingent）4）先驗(yàn)與經(jīng)驗(yàn)（Aprioriandaposteriori）5）涉實(shí)與涉名（dereanddedicto）6）共相與殊相（universalandparticular）7）使用與提及（useandmention）8）內(nèi)在與外在（internalandexternal）2.概念考察的工具9）主觀與客觀（subjectiveandobjective）10）范疇與情態(tài)（categoricalandmodal）11）本性與習(xí)性（naturalandconventional)12）復(fù)合與整體（compositionalandholistic）13）演繹與歸納（deductionandinduction）14）開放與閉合（openandclose）15）連續(xù)與離散（continualanddiscrete）16）……3.認(rèn)知工具的運(yùn)用回到前面的例子1）王冕死了父親vs王冕讀了研究生。2）芙蓉姐姐想當(dāng)電影明星。3）我們要推選一名副校長(zhǎng)vs我要買輛寶馬X6。4）這個(gè)老師像個(gè)人。5）阿Q沒(méi)結(jié)婚，光棍兒一個(gè)。6）你我有相同的轎車vs你我有相同的未婚妻。7）你是我唯一信賴過(guò)的人。8）我就是我，是顏色不一樣的煙火。9）“我吃過(guò)晚飯了”翻譯成“Ihadmysupper”對(duì)嗎？3.認(rèn)知工具的運(yùn)用0）認(rèn)知描寫與解釋DescriptionvsExplanation描寫thewaywecommunicate解釋thewaywethink3.認(rèn)知工具的運(yùn)用試看先例：例6）你我有相同的轎車vs你我有相同的未婚妻。類相同vs例相同（type-identicalortoken-identical)？1）類與例（TypeandToken)YouandIhavethesamecar.YouandIhavethesamefiancée.Whatdoesthewordsamemeanhere?Whatthisexampleshowsisthattotalkofthe‘same’Xisambiguous.1）類與例（TypeandToken)Thetype/tokendistinctionisimportantwithregardtoidentity.Twothingsthatarethesameineveryrespect,butwhicharenot,infact,oneobject,aresaidtobetype-identical.Eachtype-identicalobjectorpersonissaidtobeatokenofthatsingletype.Whenwehavetwoterms–forexample,myfiancéeandyourfiancée–butonlyonereferent,wesaythetwotermsrefertoonesinglethingthatistoken-identical.2）分析與綜合（AnalyticandSynthetic）:

類推與類比

5）阿Q沒(méi)結(jié)婚，光棍兒一個(gè)。1）王冕死了父親vs王冕讀了研究生。2）分析與綜合（AnalyticandSynthetic）alinguisticdistinction.Analyticsentencesaretruemerelyinvirtueofthemeaningsofthewords("Allbachelorsareunmarried"istheusualexample).Syntheticstatements,bycontrast,isfixatedontheexternalworld(atleasttosomedegree).

442/6/2023Du2）分析與綜合Thisdistinctionmayalsobeconstruedinargumentform.Forexample,ifyouthinkthat“AhQ（阿Q）”isabachelorandyouthenconcludeheisnotmarried,youhavemadeananalyticjudgment,sinceinsayingheisnotmarriedyouhavesaidnothingthatisnotalreadycontainedinthethoughtthatheisabachelor.2）分析與綜合If,however,youthinkthatsomethingiswaterandyoujudgethatitboilsat100°C,youaremakingasyntheticjudgment,sincenothinginthemerethoughtthatsomethingiswatercantellyouwhatitsboilingpointis.3）必然與偶然（NecessaryandContingent）

4）先驗(yàn)與經(jīng)驗(yàn)（Aprioriandaposteriori）Metaphysical/Epistemicdistinctions8）我就是我，是顏色不一樣的煙火。前半截必然，后半截偶然。2+2=4；4）先驗(yàn)與經(jīng)驗(yàn)（Aprioriandaposteriori）Aprioriandaposterioriareepistemicnotionstheyhavetodowithourknowledge.Apropositionissaidtobe'apriori'ifwecanknowitonthebasisofreasonalone,withoutappealtoexperience.Myknowledgethat'2+2=4'isanexampleofaprioriknowledge.Scientificknowledge,bycontrast,isempirical(or'aposteriori').482/6/2023Du3）必然與偶然（NecessaryandContingent）Necessaryvs.ContingentNecessaryvs.contingentaremetaphysicalnotions–theyconcernhowtheworldis(independentlyofourknowledge)orhowitmighthavebeen…independentlyofthought.492/6/2023Du3）必然與偶然（NecessaryandContingent）Naturalkinds(water,gold,electron,electromagneticfield,etc.)haveessentialandcontingentattributes.Forinstance,waterisessentiallyH2O.Ifthatstuff(e.g.,theonewhichcomesfromfaucets)didnothavethechemicalstructureH2O,thenitwouldnot/couldnotbewhatitis.Onthecontrary,temperatureisacontingentpropertyofwater.502/6/2023Du3）必然與偶然（NecessaryandContingent）Apropositionisnecessarilytrueifitcouldnothavebeenfalse(e.g.2+2=4,again).Contingentpropositionsareonesthatcould(inprinciple)havehaddifferenttruthvalues.Forexample,itismerelycontingentlytruethatyouarelisteningtomerightnow.WecanimaginesomeotherpossibleworldinsteadwhereyouarewatchingT.V.orsomethingelse.512/6/2023Du5）涉實(shí)與涉名（dereanddedicto）2）芙蓉姐姐想當(dāng)電影明星。3）我們要推選一名副校長(zhǎng)vs我要買輛寶馬X6。4）這個(gè)老師像個(gè)人。5）涉實(shí)與涉名（dereanddedicto）dere

vs.

dedictomodalityAdistinctioninmodallogicRemember:‘dere’meansconcerningthething（涉實(shí)）.Deremodality:modaltermsapplytothepossessionofanattributebyanobjectDedictomodality:modaltermsapplytoastatementorproposition.Itmeans“concerningtheproposition”(涉名)532/6/2023Du5）涉實(shí)與涉名（dereanddedicto）Dedicto:Abelievesthatordesiresx.MarybelievesthatanFBIagentshotJFK.SisterFurong（芙蓉姐姐）desirestobeafamousmoviestar.Dere:ThereisanxsuchthatAbelievesordesiresit.ThereisanFBIagentwhomMarybelievesshotJFK.Thereisafamousmoviestar（say,FanBingbing)whomSisterFurongwantstobe.5）涉實(shí)與涉名（dereanddedicto）So,togiveanotherexample,ifIsay,‘IwanttobuyaBMW730’,mydesireisdedicto

ifanyBMW730willdo,butdere

ifIhaveaparticularcarinmind,perhapstheonemyneighboristhinkingofsellingataknock-downpricetoflatterme.我們要推選一個(gè)副校長(zhǎng)。5）涉實(shí)與涉名（dereanddedicto）Thedere/dedicto

distinctionisalsoimportantinmattersofnecessity.Forinstance,ifProfessorJiangistheoldestpersoninChongqing,inwhatsense,ifany,isitcorrecttosaythatheisnecessarilytheoldestpersoninChongqing?涉名的必然性與涉實(shí)的必然性IfIamsitting,thenIamnecessarilynotstanding.Dedictoreading:thestatementthat[ifsomeoneissittingthensheisnotstanding]isanecessaryone,soondedictoreading,theabovesentenceisTRUE.Thisisbecausesittingandstandingaredisjunctivelyrelated（析??；選言）

–‘sitting’applies