二十四謬誤中英對(duì)照知識(shí)分享

二十四謬誤中英對(duì)照學(xué)習(xí)好資料學(xué)習(xí)好資料精品資料精品資料第一部分考試范圍內(nèi)本次考試考第一部分列舉的前15個(gè)。后面第二部分列舉的僅供以后學(xué)習(xí)參考。(―)了解基本邏輯，避免常見錯(cuò)誤要了解基本邏輯錯(cuò)誤一定不能錯(cuò)過一篇英文小品文LoveIsAFallacy(作者M(jìn)axShulman),這里僅列舉出十種最常見的邏輯錯(cuò)誤。草率前提(DictoSimpliciter)例如：Womenareonaveragenotasstrongasmenandlessabletoperformwellpolitically.Therefore,womencan'tpulltheirweightingovernmentwork.點(diǎn)評(píng)：雖然女性確實(shí)在政界擔(dān)任較少工作，但這不意味著女性群體中所有的人都是這樣。2?過度概化(HastyGeneralization)例如：McDonald'sandKFCofferfoodswithlittlenutrition,andthuswecannotexpectanyfastfoodrestauranttoprovideuswithnutritiousfoods.點(diǎn)評(píng)：兩個(gè)個(gè)例不足以推出一個(gè)真理。因果顛倒(PostHoc)例如：Mostyoungcriminalswatchviolentmoviesbeforetheycommittheircrimes;obviously,violentmoviesleadtojuveniledelinquency.點(diǎn)評(píng)：甲事情發(fā)生在乙事情之前，這并不代表著先發(fā)生的甲事情就是后發(fā)生的乙事情的原因。矛盾前提(ContradictoryPremises)例如：IfGodcandoeverything,canhemakeastonesoheavythathecan'tcarry?點(diǎn)評(píng)：前提條件中就有相互矛盾的地方，結(jié)論當(dāng)然是錯(cuò)誤的。感性論證(AdMisericordiam)例如：Thinkofallthepoor,starvingAfricanchildren!Howcouldrichcountriesbesocruelasnottohelpthem?點(diǎn)評(píng)：抒情是不能當(dāng)作論證的。6?錯(cuò)誤類比(FalseAnalogy)例如：Youngchildrenarelikeflowers---flowersshouldstayawayfromterribleweathertogrow,sochildrenneedtogetridofeverythingnegative.點(diǎn)評(píng)：孩子和花朵的區(qū)別太大。成長(zhǎng)的過程也太復(fù)雜。最好不要用這兩者來類比。7?虛假假設(shè)(HypothesisContrarytoFact)例女□:IfTVwerenotinvented,todaypeoplewouldneverhavesuchwonderfulentertainmentbroughtbyTV.點(diǎn)評(píng)：因?yàn)殡娨曇呀?jīng)被發(fā)明了，對(duì)于過去的否定假設(shè)后所得出的結(jié)論都是邏輯上的錯(cuò)誤結(jié)論。8?無關(guān)轉(zhuǎn)移(RedHerring)例如：Manypeoplesayweneedtoexploittheouterspace,apointwhichIbelieveiswrong,becausetherearesomanypoorpeopleonEarthwhohardlymakeendsmeet.點(diǎn)評(píng)：有一個(gè)問題沒解決并不代表著另一個(gè)問題不值得解決。9?從眾錯(cuò)誤(Bandwagon)例如：Everyonesaysitisjustifiedtolearnasecondlanguagesowemustlearnone.點(diǎn)評(píng)：人人都說，或者大多數(shù)都說，這并不意味著該觀點(diǎn)正確。10.滑坡謬誤(Slipperyslope)例女□:Ifwedon'tcareabouttheenvironment,theworldwilldiein50years.點(diǎn)評(píng)：從環(huán)境問題到世界滅亡，中間有無數(shù)環(huán)節(jié)未提供論證。ExamplesofSlipperySlope"Wehavetostopthetuitionincrease!Thenextthingyouknow,they'llbecharging$40,000asemester!""TheUSshouldn'tgetinvolvedmilitarilyinothercountries.Oncethegovernmentsendsinafewtroops,itwillthensendinthousandstodie.""Youcannevergiveanyoneabreak.Ifyoudo,they'llwalkalloveryou.""We'vegottostopthemfrombanningpornography.Oncetheystartbanningoneformofliterature,theywillneverstop.Nextthingyouknow,theywillbeburningallthebooks!"11.appealtoemotionYouattemptedtomanipulateanemotionalresponseinplaceofavalidorcompellingargument.Appealstoemotionincludeappealstofear,envy,hatred,pity,pride,andmore.It'simportanttonotethatsometimesalogicallycoherentargumentmayinspireemotionorhaveanemotionalaspect,buttheproblemandfallacyoccurswhenemotionisusedinsteadofalogicalargument,ortoobscurethefactthatnocompellingrationalreasonexistsforone'sposition.Everyone,barsociopaths,isaffectedbyemotion,andsoappealstoemotionareaverycommonandeffectiveargumenttactic,butthey'reultimatelyflawed,dishonest,andtendtomakeone'sopponentsjustifiablyemotional.Example:Lukedidn'twanttoeathissheep'sbrainswithchoppedliverandbrusselsprouts,buthisfathertoldhimtothinkaboutthepoor,starvingchildreninathirdworldcountrywhoweren'tfortunateenoughtohaveanyfoodatall.12.adhominem‘personalattack人身攻擊Youattackedyouropponent'scharacterorpersonaltraitsinanattempttounderminetheirargument.Adhominemattackscantaketheformofovertlyattackingsomebody,ormoresubtlycastingdoubtontheircharacterorpersonalattributesasawaytodiscredittheirargument.Theresultofanadhomattackcanbetounderminesomeone'scasewithoutactuallyhavingtoengagewithit.Example:AfterSallypresentsaneloquentandcompellingcaseforamoreequitabletaxationsystem,Samaskstheaudieneewhetherweshouldbelieveanythingfromawomanwhoisn'tmarried,wasoncearrested,andsmellsabitweird.第七條：訴諸虛偽13.loadedquestion含沙射影Youaskedaquestionthathadapresumptionbuiltintoitsothatitcouldn'tbeansweredwithoutappearingguilty.Loadedquestionfallaciesareparticularlyeffectiveatderailingrationaldebatesbecauseoftheirinflammatorynature-therecipientoftheloadedquestioniscompelledtodefendthemselvesandmayappearflusteredoronthebackfoot.Example:GraceandHelenwerebothromanticallyinterestedinBrad.Oneday,withBradsittingwithinearshot,GraceaskedinaninquisitivetonewhetherHelenwashavinganyproblemswithadrughabit..appealtoauthority訴諸權(quán)威Yousaidthatbecauseanauthoritythinkssomething,itmustthereforebetrue.It'simportanttonotethatthisfallacyshouldnotbeusedtodismisstheclaimsofexperts,orscientificconsensus.Appealstoauthorityarenotvalidarguments,butnorisitreasonabletodisregardtheclaimsofexpertswhohaveademonstrateddepthofknowledgeunlessonehasasimilarlevelofunderstandingand/oraccesstoempiricalevidenee.Howeveritis,entirelypossiblethattheopinionofapersonorinstitutionofauthorityiswrong;thereforetheauthoritythatsuchapersonorinstitutionholdsdoesnothaveanyintrinsicbearinguponwhethertheirclaimsaretrueornot.Example:Notabletodefendhispositionthatevolution'isn'ttrue'Bobsaysthatheknowsascientistwhoalsoquestionsevolution(andpresumablyisn'taprimate).竊取論點(diǎn).beggingthequestionYoupresentedacircularargumentinwhichtheconclusionwasincludedinthepremise.Thislogicallyincoherentargumentoftenarisesinsituationswherepeoplehaveanassumptionthatisveryingrained,andthereforetakenintheirmindsasagiven.Circularreasoningisbadmostlybecauseit'snotverygood.Example:ThewordofZorbotheGreatisflawlessandperfect.WeknowthisbecauseitsayssoinTheGreatandInfallibleBookofZorbo'sBestandMostTruestThingsthatareDefinitelyTrueandShouldNotEverBeQuestioned.第二部分以下完整版留著資料用。第一條：稻草人strawman/strawmanYoumisrepresentedsomeone'sargumenttomakeiteasiertoattack.Byexaggerating,misrepresenting,orjustcompletelyfabricatingsomeone'sargument,it'smucheasiertopresentyourownpositionasbeingreasonable,butthiskindofdishonestyservestounderminehonestrationaldebate.Example:AfterWillsaidthatweshouldputmoremoneyintohealthandeducation,WarrenrespondedbysayingthathewassurprisedthatWillhatesourcountrysomuchthathewantstoleaveitdefencelessbycuttingmilitaryspending.第二條：錯(cuò)誤歸因falsecauseYoupresumedthatarealorperceivedrelationshipbetweenthingsmeansthatoneisthecauseoftheother.Manypeopleconfusecorrelation(thingshappeningtogetherorinsequenee)forcausation(thatonethingactuallycausestheothertohappen).Sometimescorrelationiscoincidental,oritmaybeattributabletoacommoncause.Example:Pointingtoafancychart,Rogershowshowtemperatureshavebeenrisingoverthepastfewcenturies,whilstatthesametimethenumbersofpirateshavebeendecreasing;thuspiratescooltheworldandglobalwarmingisahoax.第三條：訴諸感情appealtoemotionYouattemptedtomanipulateanemotionalresponseinplaceofavalidorcompellingargument.Appealstoemotionincludeappealstofear,envy,hatred,pity,pride,andmore.It'simportanttonotethatsometimesalogicallycoherentargumentmayinspireemotionorhaveanemotionalaspect,buttheproblemandfallacyoccurswhenemotionisusedinsteadofalogicalargument,ortoobscurethefactthatnocompellingrationalreasonexistsforone'sposition.Everyone,barsociopaths,isaffectedbyemotion,andsoappealstoemotionareaverycommonandeffectiveargumenttactic,butthey'reultimatelyflawed,dishonest,andtendtomakeone'sopponentsjustifiablyemotional.Example:Lukedidn'twanttoeathissheep'sbrainswithchoppedliverandbrusselsprouts,buthisfathertoldhimtothinkaboutthepoor,starvingchildreninathirdworldcountrywhoweren'tfortunateenoughtohaveanyfoodatall.第四條：謬誤謬誤thefallacyfallacyYoupresumedthatbecauseaclaimhasbeenpoorlyargued,orafallacyhasbeenmade,thattheclaimitselfmustbewrong.Itisentirelypossibletomakeaclaimthatisfalseyetarguewithlogicalcoherencyforthatclaim,justasispossibletomakeaclaimthatistrueandjustifyitwithvariousfallaciesandpoorarguments.Example:RecognisingthatAmandahadcommittedafallacyinarguingthatweshouldeathealthyfoodbecauseanutritionistsaiditwaspopular,Alysesaidweshouldthereforeeatbacondoublecheeseburgerseveryday.第五條：滑坡謬誤slipperyslopeYousaidthatifweallowAtohappen,thenZwilleventuallyhappentoo,thereforeAshouldnothappen.Theproblemwiththisreasoningisthatitavoidsengagingwiththeissueathand,andinsteadshiftsattentiontoextremehypotheticals.Becausenoproofispresentedtoshowthatsuchextremehypotheticalswillinfactoccur,thisfallacyhastheformofanappealtoemotionfallacybyleveragingfear.Ineffecttheargumentathandisunfairlytaintedbyunsubstantiatedconjecture.Example:ColinClosetassertsthatifweallowsame-sexcouplestomarry,thenthenextthingweknowwe'llbeallowingpeopletomarrytheirparents,theircarsandevenmonkeys.第六條：人身攻擊adhominem‘personalattackYouattackedyouropponent'scharacterorpersonaltraitsinanattempttounderminetheirargument.Adhominemattackscantaketheformofovertlyattackingsomebody,ormoresubtlycastingdoubtontheircharacterorpersonalattributesasawaytodiscredittheirargument.Theresultofanadhomattackcanbetounderminesomeone'scasewithoutactuallyhavingtoengagewithit.Example:AfterSallypresentsaneloquentandcompellingcaseforamoreequitabletaxationsystem,Samaskstheaudieneewhetherweshouldbelieveanythingfromawomanwhoisn'tmarried,wasoncearrested,andsmellsabitweirdtuquoque(appealtohypocrisy)Youavoidedhavingtoengagewithcriticismbyturningitbackontheaccuser-youansweredcriticismwithcriticism.Pronouncedtoo-kwo-kwee.Literallytranslatingas'youtoo'thisfallacyisalsoknownastheappealtohypocrisy.Itiscommonlyemployedasaneffectiveredherringbecauseittakestheheatoffsomeonehavingtodefendtheirargument,andinsteadshiftsthefocusbackontothepersonmakingthecriticism.Example:NicoleidentifiedthatHannahhadcommittedalogicalfallacy,butinsteadofaddressingthesubstaneeofherclaim,HannahaccusedNicoleofcommittingafallacyearlieronintheconversation.第八條：個(gè)人懷疑personalincredulityBecauseyoufoundsomethingdifficulttounderstand,orareunawareofhowitworks,youmadeoutlikeit'sprobablynottrue.Complexsubjectslikebiologicalevolutionthroughnaturalselectionrequiresomeamountofunderstandingbeforeoneisabletomakeaninformedjudgementaboutthesubjectathand;thisfallacyisusuallyusedinplaceofthatunderstanding.Example:KirkdrewapictureofafishandahumanandwitheffusivedisdainaskedRichardifhereallythoughtwewerestupidenoughtobelievethatafishsomehowturnedintoahumanthroughjust,like,randomthingshappeningovertime.第九條：片面謬誤specialpleadingYoumovedthegoalpostsormadeupanexceptionwhenyourclaimwasshowntobefalse.Humansarefunnycreaturesandhaveafoolishaversiontobeingwrong.Ratherthanappreciatethebenefitsofbeingabletochangeone'smindthroughbetterunderstanding,manywillinventwaystoclingtooldbeliefs.Oneofthemostcommonwaysthatpeopledothisistopost-rationalizeareasonwhywhattheythoughttobetruemustremaintobetrue.It'susuallyveryeasytofindareasontobelievesomethingthatsuitsus,anditrequiresintegrityandgenuinehonestywithoneselftoexamineone'sownbeliefsandmotivationswithoutfallingintothetrapofjustifyingourexistingwaysofseeingourselvesandtheworldaroundus.Example:EdwardJohnsclaimedtobepsychic,butwhenhis'abilities'weretestedunderproperscientificconditions,theymagicallydisappeared.Edwardexplainedthissayingthatonehadtohavefaithinhisabilitiesforthemtowork.第十條：誘導(dǎo)性問題complexquestionsloadedquestionYouaskedaquestionthathadapresumptionbuiltintoitsothatitcouldn'tbeansweredwithoutappearingguilty.Loadedquestionfallaciesareparticularlyeffectiveatderailingrationaldebatesbecauseoftheirinflammatorynature-therecipientoftheloadedquestioniscompelledtodefendthemselvesandmayappearflusteredoronthebackfoot.Example:GraceandHelenwerebothromanticallyinterestedinBrad.Oneday,withBradsittingwithinearshot,GraceaskedinaninquisitivetonewhetherHelenwashavinganyproblemswithadrughabit.第十一條：舉證責(zé)任burdenofproofYousaidthattheburdenofproofliesnotwiththepersonmakingtheclaim,butwithsomeoneelsetodisprove.Theburdenofprooflieswithsomeonewhoismakingaclaim,andisnotuponanyoneelsetodisprove.Theinability,ordisinclination,todisproveaclaimdoesnotrenderthatclaimvalid,norgiveitanycredencewhatsoever.Howeveritisimportanttonotethatwecanneverbecertainofanything,andsowemustassignvaluetoanyclaimbasedontheavailableevidence,andtodismisssomethingonthebasisthatithasn'tbeenprovenbeyondalldoubtisalsofallaciousreasoning.Example:Bertranddeclaresthatateapotis,atthisverymoment,inorbitaroundtheSunbetweentheEarthandMars,andthatbecausenoonecanprovehimwrong,hisclaimisthereforeavalidone.第十二條：語義模糊ambiguityYouusedadoublemeaningorambiguityoflanguagetomisleadormisrepresentthetruth.Politiciansareoftenguiltyofusingambiguitytomisleadandwilllaterpointtohowtheyweretechnicallynotoutrightlyingiftheycomeunderscrutiny.Thereasonthatitqualifiesasafallacyisthatitisintrinsicallymisleading.Example:Whenthejudgeaskedthedefendantwhyhehadn'tpaidhisparkingfines,hesaidthatheshouldn'thavetopaythembecausethesignsaid'Fineforparkinghere'andsohenaturallypresumedthatitwouldbefinetoparkthere.第十三條：賭徒謬誤thegambler'sfallacyYousaidthat'runs'occurtostatisticallyindependentphenomenasuchasroulettewheelspins.ThiscommonlybelievedfallacycanbesaidtohavehelpedcreateanentirecityinthedesertofNevadaUSA.Thoughtheoveralloddsofa'bigrun'happeningmaybelow,eachspinofthewheelisitselfentirelyindependentfromthelast.Sowhilsttheremaybeaverysmallchancethatheadswillcomeup20timesinarowifyouflipacoin,thechancesofheadscominguponeachindividualflipremain50/50,andaren'tinflueneedbywhathappenedbefore.Example:Redhadcomeupsixtimesinarowontheroulettewheel,soGregknewthatitwasclosetocertainthatblackwouldbenextup.Sufferinganeconomicformofnaturalselectionwiththisthinking,hesoonlostallofhissavings.第十四條：樂隊(duì)花車bandwagonYouappealedtopopularityorthefactthatmanypeopledosomethingasanattemptedformofvalidation.Theflawinthisargumentisthatthepopularityofanideahasabsolutelynobearingonitsvalidity.Ifitdid,thentheEarthwouldhavemadeitselfflatformostofhistorytoaccommodatethispopularbelief.Example:ShamuspointedadrunkenfingeratSeanandaskedhimtoexplainhowsomanypeoplecouldbelieveinleprechaunsifthey'reonlyasillyoldsuperstition.Sean,however,hadhadafewtoomanyGuinnesshimselfandfelloffhischair.第十五條：訴諸權(quán)威appealtoauthorityYousaidthatbecauseanauthoritythinkssomething,itmustthereforebetrue.It'simportanttonotethatthisfallacyshouldnotbeusedtodismisstheclaimsofexperts,orscientificconsensus.Appealstoauthorityarenotvalidarguments,butnorisitreasonabletodisregardtheclaimsofexpertswhohaveademonstrateddepthofknowledgeunlessonehasasimilarlevelofunderstandingand/oraccesstoempiricalevidenee.Howeveritis,entirelypossiblethattheopinionofapersonorinstitutionofauthorityiswrong;thereforetheauthoritythatsuchapersonorinstitutionholdsdoesnothaveanyintrinsicbearinguponwhethertheirclaimsaretrueornot.Example:Notabletodefendhispositionthatevolution'isn'ttrue'Bobsaysthatheknowsascientistwhoalsoquestionsevolution(andpresumablyisn'taprimate).第十六條：合成謬誤composition/division合成謬誤Youassumedthatonepartofsomethinghastobeappliedtoall,orother,partsofit;orthatthewholemustapplytoitsparts.Oftenwhensomethingistrueforthepartitdoesalsoapplytothewhole,orviceversa,butthecrucialdiffereneeiswhetherthereexistsgoodevideneetoshowthatthisisthecase.Becauseweobserveconsistenciesinthings,ourthinkingcanbecomebiasedsothatwepresumeconsistencytoexistwhereitdoesnot.Example:Danielwasaprecociouschildandhadalikingforlogic.Hereasonedthatatomsareinvisible,andthathewasmadeofatomsandthereforeinvisibletoo.Unfortunately,despitehisthinkyskills,helostthegameofhideandgoseek.第十七條：沒有真正的蘇格蘭人notruescotsmanYoumadewhatcouldbecalledanappealtopurityasawaytodismissrelevantcriticismsorflawsofyourargument.Inthisformoffaultyreasoningone'sbeliefisrenderedunfalsifiablebecausenomatterhowcompellingtheevideneeis,onesimplyshiftsthegoalpostssothatitwouldn'tapplytoasupposedly'true'example.Thiskindofpostrationalizationisawayofavoidingvalidcriticismsofone'sargument.Example:AngusdeclaresthatScotsmendonotputsugarontheirporridge,towhichLachlanpointsoutthatheisaScotsmanandputssugaronhisporridge.Furious,likeatrueScot,AngusyellsthatnotrueScotsmansugarshisporridge.第十八條：基因謬誤geneticYoujudgedsomethingaseithergoodorbadonthebasisofwhereitcomesfrom,orfromwhomitcame.Thisfallacyavoidstheargumentbyshiftingfocusontosomething'sorsomeone'sorigins.It'ssimilartoanadhominemfallacyinthatitleveragesexistingnegativeperceptionstomakesomeone'sargumentlookbad,withoutactuallypresentingacaseforwhytheargumentitselflacksmerit.Example:Accusedonthe6o'clocknewsofcorruptionandtakingbribes,thesenatorsaidthatweshouldallbeverywaryofthethingswehearinthemedia,becauseweallknowhowveryunreliablethemediacanbe.第十九條：非黑即白black-or-whiteYoupresentedtwoalternativestatesastheonlypossibilities,wheninfactmorepossibilitiesexist.Alsoknownasthefalsedilemma,thisinsidioustactichastheappearanceofformingalogicalargument,butundercloserscrutinyitbecomesevidentthattherearemorepossibilitiesthantheeither/orchoicethatispresented.Binary,black-or-whitethinkingdoesn'tallowforthemanydifferentvariables,conditions,andcontextsinwhichtherewouldexistmorethanjustthetwopossibilitiesputforth.Itframestheargumentmisleadinglyandobscuresrational,honestdebate.Example:Whilstrallyingsupportforhisplantofundamentallyunderminecitizens'rights,theSupremeLeadertoldthepeopletheywereeitheronhisside,ortheywereonthesideoftheenemy.第二十條：竊取論點(diǎn)beggingthequestionYoupresentedacircularargumentinwhichtheconclusionwasincludedinthepremise.Thislogicallyincoherentargumentoftenarisesinsituationswherepeoplehaveanassumptionthatisveryingrained,andthereforetakenintheirmindsasagiven.Circularreasoningisbadmostlybecauseit'snotverygood.Example:ThewordofZorbotheGreatisflawlessandperfect.WeknowthisbecauseitsayssoinTheGreatandInfallibleBookofZorbo'sBestandMostTruestThingsthatareDefinitelyTrueandShouldNotEverBeQuestioned.第二十一條：訴諸自然appealtonatureYouarguedthatbecausesomethingis'natural'itisthereforevalid,justified,inevitable,goodorideal.Many'natural'thingsarealsoconsidered'good',andthiscanbiasourthinking;butnaturalnessitselfdoesn'tmakesomethinggoodorbad.Forinstancemurdercouldbeseenasverynatural,butthatdoesn'tmeanit'sgoodorjustifiable.Example:Themedicinemanrolledintotownonhisbandw