語言學(xué)名詞解釋

ADetailedNoteforMIodernLinguisticsChapter1:IntroductionDefinethefollowingterms:.Linguistics:Itisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage..Generallinguistics:Thestudyoflanguageasawholeiscalledgenerallinguistics..Appliedlinguistics:Inanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Inabroadsense,itreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticfindingstothesolutionofpracticalproblemssuchastherecoveryofspeechability..Synchronicstudy:Thestudyofalanguageatsomepointintime.e.g.AstudyofthefeaturesoftheEnglishusedinShakespeare'stimeisasynchronicstudy..Diachronicstudy:Thestudyofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.Adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy,whichstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.e.g.astudyofthechangesEnglishhasundergonesinceShakespeare'stimeisadiachronicstudy..Languagecompetence:Theidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Atransformational-generativegrammar(轉(zhuǎn)化生成語法)isamodeloflanguagecompetence..Languageperformance:performanceistheactualrealizationoftheideallanguageuser'sknowledgeoftherulesinlinguisticcommunication..Langue:Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity;Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollow;Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently..Parole:Parolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse;paroleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules;parolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation..Language:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication..Arbitrariness:Itisoneofthedesignfeaturesoflanguage.Itmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Agoodexampleisthefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages..Productivity:Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthat讓makespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers..Duality:Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsatthelowerorbasiclevel,andtheotherofmeaningsatthehigherlevel..Displacement:languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker..Culturaltransmission:Whilewearebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned..Designfeatures:ItreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunicationExplainthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Linguisticsinvestigatesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.Linguisticstudyisscientificbecauseitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationofauthentic(可靠的，真實的)languagedata.Noseriouslinguisticconclusionisreacheduntilafterthelinguisthasdonethefollowingthreethings:observingthewaylanguageisactuallyused,formulatingsomehypotheses,andtestingthesehypothesesagainstlinguisticfactstoprovetheirvalidity.Whatarethebranchesoflinguistics?Whatdoeseachofthemstudy?(語言學(xué)的主要分支是什么。每個分支的研究對象是什么？)Linguisticsmainlyinvolvesthefollowingbranches:Generallinguistics,whichisthestudyoflanguageasawholeandwhichdealswiththebasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsapplicableinanylinguisticstudyPhonetics,whichstudiesthesoundsthatareusedinlinguisticcommunicationPhonology,whichstudieshowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunicationMorphology,whichstudiesthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsSyntax,whichstudieshowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesSemantics,whichisthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.Pragmatics,whichisthestudyofmeaningnotinisolation,butinthecontextofuseSociolinguistics,whichisthestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyPsycholinguistics,whichisthestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofmind.Appliedlinguistics,whichisconcernedabouttheapplicationoflinguisticfindingsinlinguisticstudies;inanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Otherrelatedbranchesareanthropologicallinguistics(人類語言學(xué)),neurologicallinguistics(神經(jīng)語言學(xué)),mathematicallinguistics(數(shù)學(xué)語言學(xué)),andcomputationallinguistics(計算機語言學(xué)).Whatmakesmodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?(現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)與傳統(tǒng)語法有什么區(qū)別？)Traditionalgrammarisprescriptive(規(guī)定性)；itisbasedon"high"(religious,literary)writtenlanguage.Itsetsmodelsforlanguageuserstofollow.ButModernlinguisticsisdescriptive(描述性);itsinvestigationsarebasedonauthenticandmainlyspokenlanguagedata.Itissupposedtobescientificandobjectiveandthetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whether讓is"correct"ornot.5.Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronic(共^性)~ordiachronic(歷時性)?Why?(Thedescriptionoflanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.)Modernlinguisticsismainlysynchronic,focusingonthepresent-daylanguage.Unlessthevariousstatesofalanguagearesuccessfullystudied,itwillnotbepossibletodescribelanguagefromadiachronicpointofview.6.Whichenjoyspriorityinmodernlinguistics,speechorwriting?Why?Modernlinguisticsgivesprioritytothespokenlanguageforthefollowingreasons:First,speechprecedeswriting.Thewritingsystemisalwaysalaterinventionusedtorecordthespeech.Therearestillsomelanguagesthatonlyhavethespokenform.Then,alargeramountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechthaninwriting.Third,speechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage.7?Saussure是如何區(qū)分語言langue和言語parole的？(ThedistinctionbetweenlangueandparolewasmadebythefamousSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussureearlythiscentury.LangueandparoleareFrenchwords.)Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollowwhileparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.Langueisabstract;itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,butparoleisconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.Langueisrelativelystable,讓doesnotchangefrequently;whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.8?Chomsky的語言能力competence和語言使用performance各指什么？(AmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950'sproposedthedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance.)Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Thisinternalizedsetofrulesenablesthelanguageusertoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentencesandrecognizesentencesthatareungrammaticalandambiguous.AccordingtoChomsky,performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Althoughthespeaker'sknowledgeofhismothertongueisperfect,hisperformancesmayhavemistakesbecauseofsocialandpsychologicalfactorssuchasstress,embarrassment,etc?Chomskybelievesthatwhatlinguistsshouldstudyisthecompetence,whichissystematic,nottheperformance,whichistoohaphazard(偶然的).9.HowisSaussure'sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky'sdistinctionbetweencompetence?。9.HowisSaussure'sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky'sdistinctionbetweencompetence?。xnidpwhai'isnaiieirdifference?BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandtheactualuseoflanguage.Theirpurposeistosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.TheydifferinthatSaussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.Whatcharacteristicsoflanguagedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,comprehensivedefinitionoflanguage?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Firstofall,languageisasystem,i.e.elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.Second,languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitrefersto.Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages.Theterm“human”ismeanttospecifythatlanguageishuman-specific.WhatfeaturesofhumanlanguagehavebeenspecifiedbyCharlesHocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanyanimalcommunicationsystem?人類語言的甄別性特征是什么?~Arbitrariness(任意性)：(課本答案：asignofsophisticationonlyhumansarecapableof)Itmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Althoughlanguageisarbitrarybynature,讓isnotentirelyarbitrary.Non-arbitrarywordsmakeuponlyasmallpercentageofthetotalnumber.Thearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions.Productivity(創(chuàng)造性)：(課本答案：creativity:animalsarequitelimitedinthemessagestheyareabletosend)Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossiblethecon-structionandinterpretationofaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingthosetheyhaveneversaidorheardbefore.Duality(二重性)：(課本答案：afeaturetotallylackinginanyanimalcommunication)Itmeansthatlanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsatthelowerlevelandtheotherofmeaningsatthehigherlevel.Atthelowerorthebasiclevel,thereisthestructureofindividualandmeaninglesssounds,whichcanbegroupedintomeaningfulunitsatthehigherlevel.Thisdualityofstructureordoublearticulationoflanguageenablesitsuserstotalkaboutanythingwithintheirknowledge.Displacemen(t移位性):(課本答案：noanimalcan“talk”aboutthingsremovedfromtheimmediatesituation)Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.Culturaltransmission(文化傳遞性)： (課本答案：detailsofhumanlanguagesystemaretaughtandlearnedwhileanimalsarebornwiththecapacitytosendoutcertainsignalsasameansoflimitedcommunication)Whilewearebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.Doyouthinkhumanlanguageisentirelyarbitrary?Why?Languageisarbitraryinnature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary,becausetherearealimitednumberofwordswhoseconnectionsbetweenformsandmeaningscanbelogicallyexplainedtoacertainextent,forexample,theonomatopoeia,wordswhicharecoinedonthebasisofimitationofsoundsbysoundssuchasbang,crash,etc..Takecompoundsforanotherexample.Thetwoelements“photo”and“copy”in“photocopy”arenon-motivated,butthecompoundisnotarbitrary.Chapter2:PhonologyDefinetheterms:1） .phonetics:Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;讓isconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld'slanguages2） .auditoryphonetics:Itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthehearer'spointofview.Itstudieshowthesoundsareperceivedbythehearer.3） .acousticphonetics:Itstudiesthespeechsoundsbylookingatthesoundwaves.Itstudiesthephysicalmeansbywhichspeechsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.4） .internationalphoneticalphabet[IPA]:Itisastandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscription.5） .Broadtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly,i.e.oneletter-symbolforonesound.Thisisthetranscriptionnormallyusedindictionariesandteachingtextbooks.6） .Narrowtranscription:isthetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics.Thisisthetranscriptionusedbythephoneticiansintheirstudyofspeechsounds.7） .diacritics:isasetofsymbolswhichcanbeaddedtotheletter-symbolstomakefinerdistinctionsthanthelettersalonemakepossible.8） .Voiceless（清音）：whenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchaconditionarecalledvoicelesssounds.9） .Voicing（濁音）：Soundsproducedwhilethevocalcordsarevibratingarecalledvoicedsounds.10） .Vowelthesoundsinproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledvowels.11） .Consonants:thesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltractarecalledconsonants.12） .phonology:Phonologystudiesthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.13） .phone:Phonescanbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.14） .phoneme:acollectionofabstractphoneticfeatures,itisabasicunitinphonology.Itisrepresentedorrealizedasacertainphonebyacertainphoneticcontext.15） .allophone:Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Forexample[l]and[l]16） .phonemiccontrast:Phonemiccontrastreferstotherelationbetweentwophonemes.Iftwophonemescanoccurinthesameenvironmentanddistinguishmeaning,theyareinphonemiccontrast.17） .Complementarydistribution:referstotherelationbetweentwosimilarphoneswhichareallophonesofthesamephoneme,andtheyoccurindifferentenvironments.18） .minimalpair：Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.Forexample:binandpin.19） .suprasegmentalfeatures:thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,toneandintonation.20） .tone:Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationcandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes.Themeaning-distinctivefunctionofthetoneisespeciallyimportantintonelanguages,forexample,inChinese.21） .intonation:Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Forexample,Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risetoneandtherise-falltone.2?Whatarethetwomajormediaofcommunication?5thetwo,whichoneisprimaryandwhy?語言交際的兩大媒介是什么？哪一個是基本的交際媒介？為什么?~Speechandwritingarethemajormediaofcommunication.Speechisconsideredprimaryoverwriting.Thereasonsare:speechispriortowritinginlanguageevolution,speechplaysagreaterroleindailycommunications,andspeechisthewayinwhichpeopleacquiretheirnativelanguage.3?Whatarethethreebranchesofphonetics?Howdotheycontributetothestudyofspeechsounds?語音學(xué)的三個分支是什么。它們是如何研究語言學(xué)的?~（可參照一下課文原話，可能更容易理解）1） Articulatoryphoneticsdescribesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhowtheydiffer.2） Auditoryphoneticsstudiesthephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds,andreachesimportantconclusionthatphoneticidentityisonlyatheoreticalideal.3） Acousticphoneticsstudiesthephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds,thewaysoundstravelfromthespeakertothehearer;讓dealswiththesoundwavesthroughtheuseofsuchmachinesasaspectrograph（聲譜儀）.4.Wherearethearticulatoryapparatusofhumanbeingcontained?Pharyngealcavity,oralcavityandnasalcavity.5?Whatisvoicingandhowisitcaused?什么叫濁音化？它是如何形成的?~Voicingistheresultofthevibrationofthevocalcords.Whenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchawayarevoiceless.Whenvocalcordsareheldtogethertautlysothattheairstreamvibratesthem,thesoundsproducedinthiswayarevoiced.Whatisthefunctionofnasalcavity?Howdoesitperformthisfunction?Thefunctionofnasalcavityistonasalizethesoundsthatareproduced.Itdoesthisbyclosingtheairpassageconnectingtheoralandnasalcavitiessothattheairstreamcanonlygothroughthenasalcavity.Describethevariouspartsintheoralcavitywhichareinvolvedintheproductionofspeechsounds?Thevariouspatsofthetongue:thetip,thefront,theblade,andtheback;theuvula;thesoftpalate;thehardpalate;theteethridge（alveolar）;theupperandlowerteeth;thelips.Howbroadtranscriptionandnarrowtranscriptiondiffer?~寬式標音和嚴式標音有什么區(qū)別？Thebroadtranscriptionisthetranscriptionofsoundsbyusingonelettertorepresentonesound.Thenarrowtranscriptionisthetranscriptionwithdiacritics（變音符號）toshowdetailedarticulatoryfeaturesofsounds.Inbroadtranscription,thesymbol[l]inusedforthesound[l]inwordslikeleaf[li:f],feel[fi:l],build[bild],andhealth[hel0].Thesound[l]inallthesewordsisdifkrslightly.The[l]in[li:f],occurringbeforeavowel,iscalledaclear[l],andnodiacriticisneededtoindicateit;the[l]in[fi:l]and[bild],occurringbeforeanotherconsonant,iscalleddark[l],indicatedinnarrowtranscriptionas[l].Thenin[hel0],thesound[l]isfollowedbythedentalsound[0],itisthuscalledadental[l],andtranscribedas[hel0]（注:l下有一個向下的框，無法打?。﹊nnarrowtranscription.HowaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?~英語的輔音是如何分類的?~1） bymannerofarticulation.stops（plosive爆破音）：[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g]fricatives（磨擦音）：[f],[v],[s],[z],[9],[d],[f],[3],[h]affricates（破擦音）：[tf],[d3]liquids（lateral邊音，流音）:[l],[r]nasals（鼻音）:[m],[n],[g]glides（semivowels半元音）:[w],[j]2） byplaceofarticulation:bilabial（雙唇音）：[p],[b],[m],[w]labiodental（唇齒音）：[f],[v]dental（舌齒音）：[0],[d]alveolar（齒齦音）：[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r]palatal（腭音）：[f],[3],[tf],[d3],[j]velar（軟腭音）：[k],[g],[g]glottal（喉音，聲門單）：[h]10?WhatcriteriaareusedtoclassifytheEnglishvowels?英語的元音是如何分類的?~1） Accordingtothepositionofthetongue,vowelsmaybedistinguishedasfrontvowelssuchas[i:][i][e][氏][a],centralvowelssuchas[3:][s][A],andbackvowelssuchas[u:][U][0:][0][a:]2） Accordingtotheopennessofthemouth,weclassifythevowelsintofourgroups:closevowelssuchas[i:][i][u:][U],semi-closevowelssuchas[e][3:],semi-openvowelssuchas[s][0:],andopenvowels suchas[氏][a] [A][0]and[a:].3） Accordingtotheshapeofthelips,vowelsaredividedintoroundedvowelsandunroundedvowels.InEnglishallthefrontandcentralvowelsareunroundedvowels,allthebackvowels,withexceptionof[a:], arerounded.4） Accordingtothelengthofthevowels,theEnglishvowelscanalsobeclassifiedintolongvowelsandshortvowels.Thelongvowelsinclude[i:][3:][0:][u:][a:],whiletherestareshortvowels.Whatisthedifferencebetweenamonophthongandadiphthong?Amonophthongisoneforwhichtheorgansofspeechremaininagivenpositionforaperiodoftime.Adiphthongisavowelsoundconsistingofadeliberateglide.Theorgansofspeechstartinginthepositionofonevowelandimmediatelymovinginthedirectionofanothervowel,forexample:[i:],[i]aremonophthongs,and[al],[eI]arediphthongs.Howdophoneticsandphonologyditlerintheirfocusofstudy?Whodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedintheditlerencebetween[l]and[l],[p]and[ph],aphoneticianoraphonologist?Why?Phonetics:descriptionofallspeechsoundsandtheirfinedifferences.Itnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.Phonology:descriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhowsoundsfunctiontodistinguishmeaning.Itisrealizedascertainphoneanditdistinguishmeaning.Aphoneticianwouldbemoreinterestedinsuchdifferencesbecausesuchdifferenceswillnotcausedifferencesinmeaning,butcanmakefinerdistinctionsofthesounds.Whatisaphone?Howisitdifierentfromaphoneme?Howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?Phone:aspeechsound,aphoneticunit.（Itnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning）Phoneme:acollectionofabstractsoundfeatures,aphonologicalunit.（realizedascertainphone,distinguishmeaning）Allophones:actualrealizationofaphonemeindifferentphoneticcontexts.Whatisaminimalpairandwhatisaminimalset?Whyisitimportanttoidentifytheminimalsetinalanguage?Minimalpair:twosoundcombinationsidenticalineverywayexceptinonesoundelementthatoccursinthesameposition.Minimalset:agroupofsoundcombinationswiththeabovefeature.Byidentifyingtheminimalpairsortheminimalsetofalanguage,aphonologistcanidentifyitsphonemes.15?Whatarephonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpair?什么叫音位對立？什么叫互補分布？什么是最小對立對？（p34）Iftwophoneticallysimilarsoundscanoccurinthesameenvironmentsandtheydistinguishmeaning,theyareinphonemiccontrast.[p],[b]Iftwophoneticallysimilarsoundsaretwoallophonesofthesamephonemeandtheyoccurindifferentenvironments,theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.[p],[ph].Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.Forexample,killandbill.16?Explainwithexamplesthesequentialrule,theassimilationruleandthedeletionrule.(每條規(guī)則記一個例子)Sequentialrule:rulegoverningthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.Assimilationrule:ruleassimilatingonesoundsimilartothefollowingonebycopyingoneofitsphoneticfeatures.Deletionrule:rulegoverningthedeletionofasoundinacertainphoneticcontextalthoughitisrepresentedinspelling.Whataresupresegmentalfeatures?HowdothemajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesofEnglishfu