商務(wù)英語作業(yè)

QuestionsHowdowerealizetherelationshipbetweenNPMandpublicpolicy?PublicpolicyisaveryimportantpartoftheNPMprocess.Pubicmanagementwasgenerallyregardedasaprocessthroughwhichpolicieswereformulated,resourcesallocated,andprogramsimplemented.WhatdoyouthinkoftheNPMliterature?TheNPMliteratureasawholeisamorphous,asmightbeexpectedofaninterdisciplinary,policy-orientedfield.WecandividetheNPMliteratureintotwomainbranches:researchandargumentation.“Research”referstoscholarlyworksintendedtoexplainfactsandevents.“Argumentation”referstoscholarlydialoguesaboutwhat-to-doideasandactualpoliciesconcerninggovernment,policyandmanagement.Contributionstothesedialoguesoftenresolve,reformulate,orincitedoctrinalcontroversies.Howdoyouunderstandprogramdesignandoperation?Programsarepackagesofactivityintendedto“createpublicvalue”byaddressingproblemsinsuchareasashealth,criminaljustice,education,employment,andeconomicdevelopment.Programdesigninvolvesthecraftingofinstitutionalrolesandframeworksthroughwhichpolicytoolsaredefined.Whatdoyouthinkofthepublicmanagementpolicyaccordingtotheauthor?AlthoughtheideaofNPMhaspromotedinternationalscholarlydiscussionofpublicmanagement,neitherresearchnordoctrinalandpolicyargumentationonthissubjectarewhollysatisfactoryasyet.Whatdoyouthinkofpolicyanddoctrinalargumentation?Publicmanagementpoliciesareauthoritativemeansintendedtoguide,constrain,andmotivatethepublicsericeasawhole.Canyouillustratecategoryofpublicmanagementinafigure?Theimmediatetargetsofpublicmanagementpolicyhabeincludedproceduresforstaffingthepublicservice,planningorganizationalactivity,buyingsuppliesfromindustry,disbursingpublicfunds,changingorganizationalstructures,andcommunicatingwiththepublicandlegislature.WhyshouldwetakesomepresumptionsbeforeNPMresearch?TheframingofNPMasatrendencouragesthispresumption;itsacceptanceencouragespolicy-makingthroughimitationratherthanproblemsolving.Theanalysisofpublicmanagementpolicies,therefore,requiresasubstantive,inadditiontoaprofounddiscussion.CanyoucitesomepoliciesinrealitiesconcerningNPM?1.Clearperformancestandardsandmeasurements.2.Thepublicsectorisdevelopinginamorecompetitivedirection.3.Theutilizationofresourcesshouldbemoreeconomicalandmandatory.Translation英譯漢Collectivedecisionsareproducedbytheinteractionofseveralindividuals,whosepersonalqualitiesandviewsaffectthefinaloutcome.Yetcollectivedecision-makingprocesses.Collectivedecisionsarenecessarywhereareindividualisnotcompetenttomakeadecisionalone,orwhenseveralpeopleareinconflictaboutthedesiredgoals.集體決策是由幾個(gè)人的互動(dòng)產(chǎn)生的，他們的個(gè)人素質(zhì)和觀點(diǎn)影響最終的結(jié)果。然而集體決策不僅僅是一系列個(gè)人決策過程的總和。當(dāng)一個(gè)人不能獨(dú)自做出決定，或者當(dāng)幾個(gè)人在想要達(dá)到目標(biāo)發(fā)生沖突時(shí)，集體決策是必要的。漢譯英社會(huì)學(xué)家、政治學(xué)科學(xué)家和經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家對(duì)團(tuán)體以及幾個(gè)組織之間的集體決策興趣濃厚。早期的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)研究方法是規(guī)范的，偏愛于不言而喻的理性決策模型。其他社會(huì)學(xué)家偏愛復(fù)雜的描述性的研究方法?，F(xiàn)在的研究?jī)A向于把這些方法結(jié)合起來。Sociologists,politicalscientistsandeconomistsaregreatinterestedincollectivedecision-makingbetweengroupsandseveralorganizations.Theearlymethodsofeconomicresearchwerenormativesandprefer