關于稀土的畢業(yè)論文之外文文獻與翻譯

China'sRareEarthElementsIndustry:WhatCantheWestLearn?ByCindyHurstCorporateAuthor:

INSTITUTEFORTHEANALYSISOFGLOBALSECURITYWASHINGTONDCPersonalAuthor(s):

Hurst,CindyReportDate:

MAR2010PaginationorMediaCount:

43InstitutefortheAnalysisofGlobalSecurity(IAGS)U.S.ArmyForeignMilitaryStudiesOffice,731McClellanAvenue,FortLeavenworth,KS,66027CindyHurstisananalystfortheU.S.Army’sForeignMilitaryStudiesOffice,FortLeavenworth,KSIntroductionChinacontrolsapproximately97percentoftheworld'srareearthelementmarket.Theseelements,whicharenotwidelyknownbecausetheyaresolowontheproductionchain,arecriticaltohundredsofhightechapplications,manyofwhichdefineourmodernwayoflife.Withoutrareearthelements,muchoftheworld'smoderntechnologywouldbevastlydifferentandmanyapplicationswouldnotbepossible.Foronething,wewouldnothavetheadvantageofsmallersizedtechnology,suchasthecellphoneandlaptopcomputer,withouttheuseofrareearthelements.Rareearthelementsarealsoessentialforthedefenseindustryandarefoundincruisemissiles,precisionguidedmunitions,radarsystemsandreactivearmor.Theyarealsokeytotheemergenceofgreentechnologysuchasthenewgenerationofwindpoweredturbinesandplug-inhybridvehicles,aswellastooilrefineries,wheretheyactasacatalyst.(Note:formorein-depthinformationonthespecificusesofrareearthelements,refertoAppendixA).Overthepastfewyears,Chinahascomeunderincreasingscrutinyandcriticismoveritsmonopolyoftherareearthindustryandforgraduallyreducingexportquotasoftheseresources.However,Chinaisfacedwithitsowninternalissuesthat,ifnotaddressed,couldsoonstressthecountry'srareearthindustry.ThispaperisdesignedtogivethereaderabetterunderstandingofwhatrareearthelementsareandtheirimportancetosocietyingeneralandtoU.S.defenseandenergypolicyinparticular.ItwillalsoexplorethehistoryofrareearthelementsandChina'scurrentmonopolyoftheindustry,includingpossiblerepercussionsandstrategicimplicationsifrareearthelementssupplyweretobedisrupted.TheIssuesChinaFacesAccordingtoZhaoShuanglian,ViceChairmanofInnerMongolia’sAutonomousRegions,“Rareearthisauniquetreasure,anditisalsoInnerMongolia’sprimarystrategicresource.”WhileChinapossessesapproximately57percentoftheworld’sreservesofrareearthelements,theindustrywithinChinaisplaguedwithdisorderlydevelopmentandpoormanagementpractices.TheChinesegovernmentfearsthatifthecurrentpoorminingpracticesandlackofregulationcontinue,Chinawill“becomearare-earthpoorcountry,orevenacountrywithoutrareearthelements.”O(jiān)therissuesfacingChina’srareearthindustryaresmugglingandillegalminingactivities,environmentaldamageduetopoorminingpractice,andthegrowingchallengeofensuringitsowndomesticneedsofrareearth.SmugglingAccordingtoChinaBusinessNews,duetotheannualincreaseddemandforrareearthelements,manybuyersareresortingtosmugglingrareearthsoutofChina.In2008,approximately20,000tonsofrareearthwerereportedlysmuggledfromthecountry.Meanwhile,duringthatsameyear,accordingtoofficialcustomsstatistics,Chinaexported39,500tonsofrareearthoxide.Thismeansthatsmugglingaccountedforone-thirdofthetotalvolumeofrareearthsleavingChina.OneaimofChina’s“Rare-EarthIndustryDevelopmentPlanof2009-2015”istotrytocurbsomeofthesmugglingbyintroducingregulationsandpoliciestopunishthesmugglers.SmugglingispotentiallydetrimentaltoChina’srareearthindustrybecauseitkeepspriceslowanddepletesresourcesquicker.Smugglingalsoindicatesaseverelackofcontrolovertheindustryandcanleadtoevengreaterrepercussionssuchasmoredamagetotheenvironment.Regulationsonsafeminingpracticearenearlyimpossibletoenforceinthistypeofenvironment.Asitis,becauseofpoormanagementpracticesandthelargescaleoftheindustry,Chinaalreadyhasdifficultyinenforcingregulationstoimprovesafetyandenvironmentalmeasuresinitsrareearthindustry.SevereenvironmentaldamageAmajorconcernsurroundingChina’spracticeofminingrareearthelementsisthenegativeimpactithastotheenvironmentduetolaxminingpractices.Thereareanumberofpotentialenvironmentalimplicationstominingrareearthelementsifnotdoneproperly.Unfortunately,becauseoftherevenuepotential,manyrareearthmineshavebeenoperatingillegally,withnoregulation,causingsevereenvironmentalhazards,whichexacerbatestheproblem.In2005,XuGuangxianwrotethatthoriumwasasourceofradioactivecontaminationintheBaotouareaandtheYellowRiver.Accordingtoalocalsource,whoaskednottobeidentified,“IntheYellowRiver,inBaotou,thefishalldied.Theydumpthewaste–thechemicalsintotheriver.Youcannoteatthefishbecausetheyarepolluted.”Some150millionpeopledependontheriverastheirprimarysourceofwater.Undertraditionaltechnologymeans,refiningrareearthelementsrequiressuchchemicalsasammoniumbicarbonateandoxalicacid.Thepotentialhealthhazardsofammoniumbicarbonateinclude:Irritationtotherespiratorytractifinhaled,irritationtothegastrointestinaltractifingested,rednessandpainifitcomesincontactwiththeeyes,andredness,itching,andpainifitcomesincontactwiththeskin.Oxalicacidispoisonousandpotentiallyfatalifswallowed.Itisalsocorrosiveandcausessevereirritationandburnstotheskin,eyes,andrespiratorytract,isharmfulifinhaledorabsorbedthroughtheskin,andcancausekidneydamage.TheseandotherchemicalsoftenfindtheirwayintotheYellowRiver.SafetystandardsinChinaarelax.“Peopleintheir30shavediedofcancerworkingaroundthemines,possiblyfromradioactivematerials,”saidonelocalsource.“Ivisitedafactorymanytimes.WhenIvisitafactoryorworkshop,Itellthedirectoroftheworkshop,‘wouldyoutellthelaborerstoputtheirmaskonwhentheyaredoingtheirjob?’Hesaid,‘Ohyeah.Wedoeverytime,butit’stoohot.Theydon’twanttokeeptheirmaskon.’Youcanseethattheairisdirtyandtheyarebreathingitallin.”ThemostcommondiseaseinBaotouispneumoconiosis,betterknownasblacklung.Thereare5,387residentsinBaotouwhosufferfromblacklung,whichmakesupmorethan50percentofthecasesintheautonomousregion.WhileChinamighthavegeneralpollutioncontrolstandards,thecountryhasneveractuallyworkedoutpollutantdischargestandardsfortherareearthindustry.AstherareearthindustryinChinahasrapidlygrown,therehasbeennoeffectivewaytocontroltheusualpollutantssuchasammonia,nitrogen,andthoriumdust,whichareemittedduringtheproductionphase.Furthermore,generalhealthandsafetyregulationsareoftenignoredforanumberofreasons,including:?Theindustryislargeandchallengingtomonitor.?Peopleandcompaniesarenotbeingheldaccountable.Forexample,inWesternsociety,ifanemployeediesorbecomesill,repercussionscouldincludealawsuitorlife-longpensionwhichthecompanyisobligatedtofulfill.ThisisnotthecaseinChina.DomesticconsumptionisapriorityWith1.3billionpeopleandthefastestgrowingeconomyintheworld,Chinaisfacedwiththechallengingtaskofensuringithasadequatenaturalresourcestosustaineconomicgrowth,whilealsotryingtoappeasetheinternationalcommunity,whichhasbeenprotestingChina’scutsinrareearthexportquotas.AccordingtoWangCaifeng,in2008Chinaused70,000tonsofrareearthelements.Globalconsumptionwas130,000tons.Chinaexported10,000tonsofrareearthmagnetsworth$400millionand34,600tonsofotherrareearthproductsworth$500million.TherearenumerousexamplesthatpointtoChina’santicipatedincreaseinrareearthconsumption.Forexample,attheendofJuly2008,Chinahad600millioncellphoneusers.Lessthanoneyearlater,bytheendofMarch2009,Chinahad670millioncellphoneusers.Newtechnologies,suchasthethirdgeneration(3G)networks,haveboostedthesaleofcellphones,atrendwhichwilllikelycontinueasmoreandmoreChinesecitizensbuycellphonesandothersupgradetothenewtechnologies.Puttingitintoperspective,inChina,approximately50percentofthepopulationhascellphones.CTIA,theInternationalAssociationforWirelessTelecommunications,reportedinOctober2008thattheU.S.(withapopulationof304millionpeopleasofJuly2008)hadmorethan262millionwirelesssubscribers.Thismeansthat86percentoftheentireU.S.populationhadcellphones.IfChinaweretofollowthesametechnologicalgrowthpatternsastheU.S.,thecountrycouldonedayhaveapproximately1.1billioncellphonesormore.Inanotherexample,theuseofsolarandwindpoweraresettoincreaseexponentiallyinChina.Greenenergytechnologyisexpectedtobecomethelargestconsumerofrareearthelementsinthefuture.AccordingtoMarkSmith,ChiefExecutiveOfficerofMolycorpMinerals,thecompanythatownsandoperatestheMountainPassrareearthmineinCalifornia,“We’vecoinedtheterm,‘thegreenelements.’becausetherearesomanyapplicationsrightnowhybridelectricvehicles,windpoweredgeneration…permanentmagnetgenerators,compactfluorescentlightbulbs…Justtonameafew.Rareearthsareabsolutelyindispensable.They(greentechnologies)willnotworkwithoutrareearths.”China’sconsumptionofrareearthelementsisalsoexpectedtoincreasedramaticallyasmoreandmoreforeigncompaniesmovetheirproductionsitestoChinatotakeadvantageofthelowercostofrareearthsandthereforereducetheiroverallproductioncosts.ThisispartofChina’slargerstrategytomaintainatightholdontheindustry.ChinaFightsBackbeforeit’stooLate:ImplicationsfortheWestIn2005,XuGuangxiancalledforprotectivemeasuresintherareearthindustry,warningthatrareearthandthoriumresourcesatBayanObowerein“urgentneedofprotectionandrationalutilization.”XupointedoutthatsinceBayanObohadstartedoffexclusivelyasanironoremine,itdidnotproperlyconsiderwaystorecoverrareearthsandthorium.Since1958,whenBaotouIronandSteelWorksbegantheirminingoperations,250milliontonsoforehadbeenminedatthemainandeasternorebodies,leavingaremainingorevolumeof350milliontons.AttheratethatChinawasmining–10milliontonsoforeperyear–Xuestimatedthatthemainandeasternorebodieswouldbecompletelydepletedwithin35years.Withsomuchemphasisplacedontheimportanceofrareearthelementsinmoderndaytechnology,maintainingstrictcontroloverthisresourcewillhelptopropelChinaintoapositionofgreaterpolitical,economic,andmilitarypower.Priorto2009,accordingtoDaiXu,anexpertonmilitaryissues,“Chinahadbeensellingthesepreciousrare-earthmetalsatadirt-cheappricefor20years.”Thishasbothbeenstrippingthecountryofoneofitsmostimportantstrategicresourcesanddamagingtheenvironment.Inanefforttotrytoprotectitsresources,theChinesegovernmenthasbeenclampingdownonitsdomesticindustryinseveralways,including:restrictingexportquotasonrareearthelements;closingdownsmallerandillegalrareearthoperationsandconsolidatinglargeronesinanefforttogainmorecontrol;tryingtoputintoplaceincreasedenvironmentallawsregulatingrareearthmining;andstockpiling.Muchofthedevelopedworldregardsthesemeasuresasthreatening.RestrictingexportquotasOfmostconcerntotheinternationalcommunity,Chinahasbeenrestrictingexportquotasinordertohaveenoughresourcesforitsownindustriesandtoregaincontroloveritsdomesticoperations.Chinacurrentlyrestrictsexportquotasondysprosium,terbium,thulium,lutetium,yttrium,andtheheavyandscarcerrareearths.Thisreductionofexportquotashaspusheduptheinternationalpriceofkeyrareearths,includingneodymiumwhichissocriticalfortheneodymium-iron-boronpermanentmagnets.TheMinistryofLandandResourcesimplementedaregulationstatingthatthe2009exportquotaforrareearthoreswouldbesetat82,320tons,72,300ofwhicharelightrareearthelements,theremaining10,020tonsbeingheavyrareearthelements.Thesenumberswerebasedon“controlsofthetotalamountofextractionfor”rareearthorefor2008andforecastsformarketfactorsin2009.Morecutsareexpectedinthefuture.Ofcourse,thisbringsaboutanewfear.China’scontroloverrareearthelementshasthepotentialtoincreaseforeigndependenceonChinaforfinishedgoods.Chinahasadoptedvariouspoliciestofurtherdeveloptherareearthindustryatitsroots.China’svisionistoincreaseindustrialutilizationofrareearthelementsinordertodrawinmorerareearthenterprises,bothwithinandoutsideofChina,tosetupoperationsinInnerMongoliaintheareaofrareearthapplications.ZhaoShuanglianpointedoutthatInnerMongoliawantedtocontrolitsrareearthresourcessothatitcouldbecomeamajorindustrialbase.ZhaoalsoexpressedaninterestinattractingmoredomesticandinternationalinterestinInnerMongoliatodeveloptherareearthindustry.ThisisanidealscenarioforChinabecauseitwillgivethecountrycompletecontrolovertheindustryandprovidemorejobopportunitiesforChinesecitizensinthemanufacturingindustry.However,forthosecountriesforcedtomovetheirproductionbasestoChinaduetotheirdependenceonrareearthelements,jobsarelostand,perhapsmorecriticaltonationalsecurity,proprietaryandevencriticaltechnologieswilllikelybecompromised.ClosingsmalleroperationsandconsolidatinglargeronestogainmorecontrolChinaisstrivingtocutbackandconsolidatetheindustrytogainmorecontroloverit.Itisachievingthisbyclosingdownsmaller,illegaloperationsandconsolidatingandmerginglargerproducers.ThesestepswillultimatelyputcompletecontroloverChineserareearthelementsintothegovernment’shands,whichwillcompletelyrestrictanytypeofprivateenterpriseexchange.China’srareearthresourcesarewidelydistributedacross22provincesandregionsthroughoutthecountry.Becauseofthescattereddistributionofrareearthresources,itisdifficulttocarryoutefficientoversightoftheindustry.Accordingtoonesource,areviseddraftofthe2009-2015PlansforDevelopingtheRareEarthIndustrywillsimplifymanagementofChina’srareearthresourcesby“designatinglargedistricts.”ThenewplanwilldivideChina’sindustryintothreelargedistricts–south,north,andwest.ThesoutherndistrictisJiangxi,Guangdong,Fujian,Hunan,andGuangxi;thenortherndistrictisInnerMongoliaandShandong;andthewesterndistrictisSichuan.From2009to2015,lightrareearthswillbetheitemoffocusinInnerMongoliaandSichuan,withsomedevelopmentinShandongasneeded.MediumandheavyrareearthminingwillbethefocusinJiangxi,Guangdong,andFujian.TheMinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnologywilloverseetheindustrybycreatinganexpertexaminationsystemforrareearthextraction.Thesystemwillincludeimpromptuonsitevisitsandinspectionstoensurenationaldirectiveplansarebeingimplementedandexecuted.On10December2008,BaotouSteelRareEarthsetuptheInnerMongoliaBaotouSteelRareEarthHigh-TechCo.,astate-ownedsole-proprietorcompanyintherareearthshigh-techzoneofInnerMongolia;andInnerMongoliaBaotouSteelRareEarthHigh-TechCo.wasaneight-party,700-millionYuan($102.5million)jointventurethatincludedBaotouHuameiRareEarthHigh-techCo.,ZiboBaosteelLingzhiRareEarthHi-TechCo.,InnerMongoliaBaosteelandRare-EarthDevelopmentCo.Thenewventureissupposedtobethecontrollingvoiceoftherareearthindustrybyusinganewbusinessmodelwithaunifiedorganizationandproductionarrangement,unifiedpurchasing,andunifiedsales.Priortothis,thestatehadpromotedtheideaofestablishingtwomajorrareearthgroups,oneinthenorthandoneinthesouth.However,itwasdifficulttobalancetheinterestsbetweenthetwoenterprisesandtheplannevercametofruition.Thebiggestadvantagetohavingoneenterpriseinchargeoftheindustryiseasiercentralcontrolofpricing.Havingacentralizedenterpriseshouldalsofacilitateturningtheregionintoarareearth“productionofgoods”zone.NewregulationstoprotecttheenvironmentChinadoesnothavepollutantdischargestandardsfortherareearthindustry.Environmentalissuesbehindtheminingofrareearthelementsareahugeconcern.ThedifferencesbetweenWesternminingeffortsandthoseseeninChinatodayarestaggering.Awareoftheproblem,thelocalgovernmentisreportingtobetryingtofindwaystoimprovethesituation.InJuly2009,theMinistryofEnvironmentalProtectionorganizedthe“RareEarthIndustryPollutantDischargeStandards.”Thesenewstandardswillhopefully“eliminatebackwardproductionabilitiesandpromotetheupgradingandupdatingofChina’srareearthindustry.”TheMinistryofEnvironmentalProtectionsetdischargestandardsforsixtypesofatmosphericpollutants–sulfurdioxide,particles,fluoride,chlorine,hydrogenchloride,andsulfurtrioxide.Forwaterpollutants,dischargestandardsweresetfor14typesofpollutants,includingfluoride,totalphosphorous,totalcarbon,totalnitrogen,andammonianitrogen.Inmanysouthernregionswithlakes,thenewstandardsimplementspecialdischargelimitsforammonianitrogendischargeconcentrations.Thesenewstandardsaresplitintotwoparts,onepartforexistingenterprisesandtheotherpartfornewlybuiltenterprises.Underthenewstandards,rareearthenterprisesarerequiredtoincreasetheirinvestmentinenvironmentalprotectionandimproveproductiontechnologiesandcosts.StockpilingXuGuangxian,China’s“FatherofRareEarths,”hasbeenpushingtohaveChinabuildupitsstrategicreservesofrareearths.AccordingtoXu,“We(China)mustsetupastockpilingsystemforrareearthsandthorium(thoriumforenergy)andsupportleadingdomesticproducerslikeBaogang,Minmetals,andJiangxiCoppertoimplementthestockpiling.”AccordingtoXu,JapanandSouthKoreahavebuiltupstockpiles,whichareenoughfor20yearsofconsumption,bytakingadvantageoflowmarketpricesbefore2008whenChinabegantorestrictproduction,butChinahasn’tsetupastockpilingsystemyet.AccordingtoAnSihu,assistantdirectoroftheRareEarthHigh-TechZoneManagementCommittee,Chinahasmajorplanstobuildanationalrareearthresourcesstrategicreservesbase.ThetentativeplanistostoreuptherawmaterialsthatwerenotusedupfromtheannualexcavationatBaosteelandusethattostabilizeprices.EffortscurrentlyareunderwayinNorthernChinatorealizethisgoal.AnewrareearthindustryparkbeganconstructioninJuly2008andistobelocatedinNorthernChina.However,inordertobecompletelyeffective,allofChina’srareearthregionsneedtoconsolidatetheireffortstowardtheconstructionanduseofthisplannedrareearthstrategicreservesite.Xucontinuallywarnsaboutdepletingrareearthreservesfromoverproduction.StockpilingrareearthelementswillallowChinatobetterregulatethepricingofrareearthsaswellashelpensureitsownfuturesupplies.From/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA525378中國的稀土產(chǎn)業(yè)：西方能學到什么？辛蒂·赫斯特集團作者：華盛頓全球安全分析研究所個人作者：辛蒂·赫斯特發(fā)表日期：2010年3月全球安全分析研究所（IAGS）堪薩斯州利溫沃斯堡麥克萊倫大街731號美國陸軍外國軍事研究室，66027辛蒂·赫斯特：堪薩斯州利溫沃斯堡美國陸軍外國軍事研究辦公室分析師。引言中國控制著全球約97%的稀土市場。這些元素并不廣為人知，因為他們在生產(chǎn)鏈中是如此之低，但卻是成百上千的高科技應用的關鍵，其中的許多決定了我們的現(xiàn)代生活方式。沒有稀土元素，世界上大部分的現(xiàn)代科技將大大不同，許多應用型產(chǎn)品也將無法使用。一方面，不使用稀土元素，我們就沒有微型技術的優(yōu)勢，如手機和筆記本電腦。稀土元素對國防工業(yè)也是必不可少的，應用于巡航導彈，精確制導武器，雷達系統(tǒng)和反應裝甲。他們也是綠色技術得以發(fā)展的關鍵，如新一代的風力發(fā)電機和插電式混合動力汽車以及煉油廠，均需要稀土元素作催化劑。在過去的幾年中，中國對其壟斷的稀土行業(yè)的審查和批評日益嚴格，并逐漸減少稀土的出口配額。然而，中國面臨著自身的內(nèi)部問題，如果不解決，可能很快就會對其稀土行業(yè)產(chǎn)生不利影響。本文的目的是讓讀者更好地了解稀土元素和它們在社會上的一般重要性，以及對美國國防和能源政策的特殊性。本文還將探討稀土元素與中國目前的行業(yè)壟斷的歷史，包括在稀土元素供應被中斷后可能產(chǎn)生的影響和戰(zhàn)略意義。中國面臨的問題根據(jù)內(nèi)蒙古自治區(qū)副主席趙雙連所說，“稀土是一種獨特的珍寶，也是內(nèi)蒙古的主要戰(zhàn)略資源”。盡管中國擁有約占世界57%的稀土儲量，但中國的稀土行業(yè)存在的無序發(fā)展和管理不善的問題。中國政府擔心，如果目前這種簡陋的開采方式和監(jiān)管的缺乏繼續(xù)下去，中國將成為“稀土貧乏的國家，甚至是一個沒有稀土資源的國家”。中國稀土行業(yè)面臨的其他問題還有稀土走私和非法采礦活動，惡劣開采方式所造成的環(huán)境破壞以及確保不斷增長的國內(nèi)稀土需求的挑戰(zhàn)。走私據(jù)第一財經(jīng)日報，由于每年對稀土資源的不斷增長的需求，很多買家都從中國走私稀土。據(jù)報道，2008年該國約20000噸稀土被走私。同時根據(jù)海關統(tǒng)計數(shù)據(jù)，同一年中國出口了39500噸稀土氧化物。這意味著走私占中國出境稀土總量的三分之一?！爸袊⊥廉a(chǎn)業(yè)2009-2015發(fā)展計劃”的一個目的是試圖通過引入懲罰走私者的法規(guī)和政策來遏制走私行為。走私對中國稀土產(chǎn)業(yè)具有潛在的不利影響，它價格低，消耗資源也更快。走私也表明嚴重缺乏對行業(yè)的控制，這可能會造成更大的不利影響，如對環(huán)境產(chǎn)生更多的破壞。安全開采方式的法規(guī)幾乎不可能在這種環(huán)境中執(zhí)行。實際上，由于糟糕的管理實踐和巨大的行業(yè)規(guī)模，中國在執(zhí)行提高安全的法規(guī)和貫徹稀土行業(yè)的環(huán)境保護措施方面具有難度。嚴重的環(huán)境破壞中國稀土開采的關注重點是由松懈的開采方式對環(huán)境所造成的負面影響。如果做得不恰當，會有許多潛在的環(huán)境因素影響稀土開采。不幸的是，由于可觀的收入，許多稀土礦山缺乏監(jiān)管，非法經(jīng)營，造成了嚴重的環(huán)境危害，這加劇了問題的嚴重性。2005年，徐光憲寫道，釷元素是包頭和黃河地區(qū)的放射性污染源。根據(jù)當?shù)匾晃徊辉竿嘎缎彰娜耸浚霸邳S河、包頭，魚都死了。他們把化學品廢棄物倒入河中。你不能吃魚，因為他們都被污染了?！奔s1.5億人依靠河流作為他們的主要水源。傳統(tǒng)的技術手段下，提煉稀土元素需要碳酸氫銨和草酸這樣的化學品。碳酸氫銨的潛在健康危害包括：如果吸入會刺激呼吸道，吸收后會刺激胃腸道，如果接觸眼睛會使其發(fā)紅和疼痛，如果與皮膚接觸會使其發(fā)紅、瘙癢甚至疼痛。草酸是有毒的，如果吞下則可能致命。它也具有強烈的腐蝕性，會對皮膚、眼睛和呼吸道造成嚴重的刺激和灼傷，如果吸入或通過皮膚吸收是十分有害的，會導致腎臟損傷。但這些和其他化學物質(zhì)經(jīng)常流入黃河。在中國的安全標準比較寬松?！霸诘V山工作的人們30多歲就死于癌癥，很可能是由于放射性物質(zhì)”，一位當?shù)厝耸空f。“我多次參觀了一個工廠，當我參觀一個工廠或車間，我問車間主任：‘當他們工作時你會告訴工人叫他們戴上面具嗎？’他說：‘是的，我們每次都會，但它太燙了，他們不想戴著面具。’你可以看到，他們污濁的空氣都吸了進去?！痹诎^最常見的疾病是塵肺病，一般多稱為黑肺。有5387個包頭居民患有黑肺，占據(jù)了自治區(qū)一半以上的病例。雖然中國可能有一般污染控制標準，但國家還沒有制定出稀土工業(yè)污染物排放標準。中國的稀土產(chǎn)業(yè)在迅速成長，但卻一直沒有控制如氨、氮以及釷塵等在生產(chǎn)階段產(chǎn)生的常見污染物的有效途徑。此外，一般的健康和安全規(guī)章制度往往由于各種原因而被忽視，包括：?行業(yè)龐大，實行監(jiān)測具有挑戰(zhàn)性。?個人和企業(yè)不承擔責任。例如，在西方社會，如果一個雇員死亡或生病，后果可能包括訴訟和終身年金，這是公司必須義務履行的，但在中國卻不是這樣的。滿足國內(nèi)消費是當務之急作為世界上具有13億人口和經(jīng)濟增長最快的國家，中國面臨著具有挑戰(zhàn)性的任務，既要確保國內(nèi)具有足夠的自然資源來維持經(jīng)濟增長，同時也試圖滿足已在抗議中國削減稀土出口配額的國際社會。根據(jù)王采風，2008年中國消耗了7萬噸稀土資源，全球消費量為13萬噸。中國出口1萬噸稀土永磁體價值4億美元，34600噸的其他稀土產(chǎn)品價值5億美元。有無數(shù)的例子指出中國的稀土消費量預計增加。例如，2008年7月底，中國有6億手機用戶。不到一年后，2009年3月底，中國有6.7億手機用戶。新技術如第三代（3G）網(wǎng)絡增加了手機的銷量，這一趨勢很可能會繼續(xù)，越來越多的中國公民會購買手機，其他人員則將不斷升級達到最新技術。整體來看，中國大約一半人口擁有手機。國際無線通信協(xié)會在2008年10月報道，美國（截至2008年7月人口為3.04億）有超過2.62億的手機用戶。這意味著整個美國86%的人口擁有手機。如果中國遵循與美國相同的技術增長模式，中國有一天可能會有大約11億的手機用戶甚至更多。另一個例子中，太陽能和風能的使用在中國將以指數(shù)方式增加。綠色能源技術有望成為未來稀土資源的最大消費者。根據(jù)莫利礦業(yè)公司的首席執(zhí)行官馬克·史密斯，該公司擁有和經(jīng)營加利福尼亞帕斯山的稀土礦，“我們創(chuàng)造了這個術語‘綠色元素’，因為有這么多的產(chǎn)品需要應用稀土元素如混合動力汽車、風力發(fā)電機……永磁發(fā)電機、緊湊型熒光燈泡等等。稀土是必不可少的，沒有稀土他們（綠色技術）將無法正常運作”。隨著越來越多的外國企業(yè)將其生產(chǎn)基地轉移到中國，利用其罕見的低成本稀土來降低整體生產(chǎn)成本，中國的稀土消費也將急劇增加。這是中國為緊緊把握稀土行業(yè)的大戰(zhàn)略的一部分。中國及