IRENA-偏遠社區(qū)的可再生能源：離網項目指南（英）

RENEWABLEENERGY

FORREMOTECOMMUNITIES

Aguidebookforoff-gridprojects

?IRENA2023

Unlessotherwisestated,materialinthispublicationmaybefreelyused,shared,copied,reproduced,printedand/orstored,providedthatappropriateacknowledgementisgivenofIRENAasthesourceandcopyrightholder.Materialinthispublicationthatisattributedtothirdpartiesmaybesubjecttoseparatetermsofuseandrestrictions,andappropriatepermissionsfromthesethirdpartiesmayneedtobesecuredbeforeanyuseofsuchmaterial.

ISBN:978-92-9260-565-0

CITATION:IRENA(2023),Renewableenergyforremotecommunities:Aguidebookforoff-gridprojects,InternationalRenewableEnergyAgency,AbuDhabi.

Forfurtherinformationortoprovidefeedback:

publications@

Thisreportisavailablefordownload:/publications

Aboutthepartners

IRENA

TheInternationalRenewableEnergyAgency(IRENA)isanintergovernmentalorganisationthatsupportscountriesintheirtransitiontoasustainableenergyfuture,andservesastheprincipalplatformforinternationalco-operation,acentreofexcellence,andarepositoryofpolicy,technology,resourceandfinancialknowledgeonrenewableenergy.IRENApromotesthewidespreadadoptionandsustainableuseofallformsofrenewableenergy,includingbioenergy,geothermal,hydropower,ocean,solarandwindenergy,inthepursuitofsustainabledevelopment,energyaccess,energysecurityandlow-carboneconomicgrowthandprosperity.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ThisguidebookwasdevelopedbytheInternationalRenewableEnergyAgency(IRENA)inconsultationwiththeAllianceforRuralElectrification(ARE).Input,feedbackandsupportwerereceivedfromNaturalResourcesCanada(NRCan).

TheguidebookwaspreparedundertheoverallguidanceofGurbuzGonul(Director,CountryEngagementandPartnerships,IRENA)andAmjadAbdulla.ItwasauthoredbyChitraNarayanswamyandKamranSiddiqui(IRENA)withvaluableinputsandsupportprovidedbyNRCancolleagues:MichaelPaunescu,AbouBakerKaddour,MarianneAudette-Chapdelaine,JayStorfer,andIRENAcolleaguesSimonBenmarraze,PaulaNardone,DivyamNagpal,KathleenDaniel,PaulKomor,WilsonMatekenyaandLoisinaAmbeyi.

ThereportwaseditedbyStefanieDurbin;layoutanddesignwereprovidedbyPhoenixDesignAid.

TheguidebookwasdevelopedaspartoftheGlobalInitiativeforTransitioningRemoteCommunitiestoRenewableEnergy,fundedbytheGovernmentofCanada,representedbyNaturalResourcesCanada(NRCan).

Disclaimer

Thispublicationandthematerialhereinareprovided“asis”.AllreasonableprecautionshavebeentakenbyIRENAtoverifythereliabilityofthematerialinthispublication.However,neitherIRENAnoranyofitsofficials,agents,dataorotherthird-partycontentprovidersprovidesawarrantyofanykind,eitherexpressedorimplied,andtheyacceptnoresponsibilityorliabilityforanyconsequenceofuseofthepublicationormaterialherein.

TheinformationcontainedhereindoesnotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsofallMembersofIRENA.ThementionofspecificcompaniesorcertainprojectsorproductsdoesnotimplythattheyareendorsedorrecommendedbyIRENAinpreferencetoothersofasimilarnaturethatarenotmentioned.ThedesignationsemployedandthepresentationofmaterialhereindonotimplytheexpressionofanyopiniononthepartofIRENAconcerningthelegalstatusofanyregion,country,territory,cityorareaorofitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationoffrontiersorboundaries.

RENEWABLEENERGY

FORREMOTECOMMUNITIES

Aguidebookforoff-gridprojects

TABLEOFCONTENTS

ABBREVIATIONS 7

INTRODUCTION 8

Electricityaccessdisparities 8

Rationaleforextendingaccess 8

Gridextensionvs.off-gridsolutions 9

Scopeoftheguidebook 10

1

REMOTECOMMUNITIES:SCOPEFOREXTENDINGELECTRICITYACCESS 12

Definingremoteness 12

Remotecommunitiesacrossregions 12

2

REACHINGTHELASTMILE:POWERINGREMOTECOMMUNITIES 16

Keyprinciplesofoff-gridprojects 16

Communityengagement 17

Meetingelectricityneedsandmanagingsupply 19

Buildingcapacitiesinthecommunity 21

Enablingpoliciestoimproveelectricityaccesstoremotecommunities 28

Financingcapitalexpenditureandshortfallsinworkingcapital 30

Replicationandscaling-up 31

3

DELIVERYMECHANISMSFORELECTRICITYPROVISION 32

Communitycentric 32

Roleoftheprivateprovider 34

Governmentprogrammesfortheprovisionofelectricitytoremotecommunities 35

4

FINANCINGSTRATEGIESTOREACHREMOTECOMMUNITIES 39

Currentcontext:grant-basedprojects 39

Investingforimpact 39

Country-levelefforts 40

REFERENCES 41

4|RENEWABLEENERGYFORREMOTECOMMUNITIES:AGUIDEBOOKFOROFF-GRIDPROJECTS

ANNEXI:CASESTUDIES 43

OldCrowcommunity,Canada 43

DolloAdoandBokolmayoWoredas,Somaliregion,Ethiopia 44

Zanzanregion,C?ted’Ivoire 45

Totota,Liberia 46

Oaxaca,Mexico 47

Okhaldunga,Nepal 48

IsleofEigg,Scotland,UnitedKingdom 49

SarawakState,Malaysia 50

LoltongVillage,Vanuatu 51

ANNEXII:ADVANTAGESOFDIFFERENTRENEWABLEENERGYTECHNOLOGIES

FORREMOTECOMMUNITYACCESS 52

FIGURES

Figure1Energypovertyinindigenouscommunitiesacrossdevelopedand

developingcountries 15

Figure2SolarPVdeploymentshowsapositivetrend,2017-2021 26

Figure3TheIsleofEiggproject:Monthlyhybridpowergeneration,March2012-March2013 26

TABLES

Table1Listofthecasestudiessurveyedandanalysed 10

Table2Designprinciplesforoff-gridelectricityprovisionprojects 17

Table3Operatingpowerrangeoftypicalhouseholdappliances 19

Table4Multi-tierelectricityaccesstohouseholdservices 20

Table5Userpackageplanswithanupperlimitonelectricityconsumed 20

Table6Loadprofilesandoperativeloadsmetthroughrenewableenergysolutionsin

theninecasestudies 22

Table7Brazil:LuzparaTodos(LightforAll)governmentprogramme 36

Table8Malaysia:SarawakAlternativeRuralElectrificationScheme(SARES)government

programme 37

Table9Canada:CleanEnergyforRuralandRemoteCommunities(CERRC)government

programme 38

RENEWABLEENERGYFORREMOTECOMMUNITIES:AGUIDEBOOKFOROFF-GRIDPROJECTS|5

BOXES

Box1EnergyconsumptionintheHinduKushHimalayaregion 13

Box2Choiceofrenewableenergyforextendingelectricityaccessinsmallisland

developingstates 14

Box3Digitaltoolsenablingcommunityparticipation 19

Box4“HomesofEnergy”:Mini-gridsO&Mhub 24

Box5Technologyevolutionofsolarhomesystems(SHSs) 25

Box6ProvincialprojectshelpIndigenouscommunitiestapintotheirrenewable

energyresources 29

Box7Enhancingenergysupplyforrefugeesettlementswithrenewableenergyoptions 30

Box8Enterpriseinnovation–Emergingrolesofprivateproviders 35

6|RENEWABLEENERGYFORREMOTECOMMUNITIES:AGUIDEBOOKFOROFF-GRIDPROJECTS

ABBREVIATIONS

AC

alternatingcurrent

LORESS

locallyownedrenewableenergyprojectsthataresmallscale

Ah

amperehour

MW

megawatt

Capex

capitalexpenditure

MWh

megawatthour

CERRC

CleanEnergyforRuralandRemote

Communities(Canada)

NDC

nationallydeterminedcontribution

CO2eq

carbondioxideequivalent

O&M

operationsandmaintenance

COMET

CommunityEngagementToolkit

PEC

PhotovoltaicElectrification

Committee(Mexico)

DC

directcurrent

PPA

powerpurchaseagreement

DG

dieselgenerator

PPP

public-privatepartnership

DRE

decentralisedrenewableenergy

PUE

powerusageeffectiveness

ESMAP

EnergySectorManagement

AssistanceProgramme

PV

photovoltaic

FGD

focusedgroupdiscussion

RET

renewableenergytechnology

GEF

GlobalEnvironmentFund

2G-SHS

second-generationsolarhomesystem

GIS

geographicinformationsystem

SARES

SarawakAlternativeRural

HKH

HinduKushHimalaya

ElectrificationScheme

HOMER

HybridOptimisationofMultipleEnergyResources

SDG

SustainableDevelopmentGoal

SHS

solarhomesystem

HPNet

HydroPowerNetwork

SIDS

smallislanddevelopingstates

HRES

hybridrenewableenergysource

3G-SHS

third-generationsolarhomesystem

IDP

internallydisplacedpeople

UN

UnitedNations

IPP

independentpowerproducer

UNDP

UnitedNationsDevelopment

IREC

InternationalRenewableEnergyCertificate

Programme

UNHCR

UnitedNationsHighCommissioner

IRENA

InternationalRenewableEnergyAgency

forRefugees

URA

UtilityRegulatoryAuthority

KII

keyinformantinterview

(Vanuatu)

km

kilometre

USD

UnitedStatesdollar

kVA

kilovoltampere

V

volt

kWh

kilowatthour

W

watt

kWp

kilowattpeak

WCMC

WorldConservationMonitoring

LCOE

levelisedcostofelectricity

Center

LED

lightemittingdiode

Wh

Wp

watthour

wattpeak

RENEWABLEENERGYFORREMOTECOMMUNITIES:AGUIDEBOOKFOROFF-GRIDPROJECTS|7

INTRODUCTION

ELECTRICITYACCESSDISPARITIES

Peoplelivinginbothurbanandrurallocationsneedaccesstoreliable,efficientandmodernamenities.However,groupslivinginruralareas,especiallyinlow-incomeanddevelopingcountries,experiencealargedisparityinaccesstoanessentialamenity–electricity–whencomparedtothoselivinginurbanareas.The2023editionoftheTrackingSDG7report(IEAetal.,2023)foundthatelectricityaccesswasavailableto98%ofurbanresidentsincontrasttoonly85%oftheirruralcounterparts.Thesituationisworseintheleastdevelopedcountries,1wherein2021therewasanaverageaccessrate2ofjust56%.Thisleftabout481millionpeoplewithoutelectricityoutofaglobalfigureof675millionasof2021.Ifadditionalmeasuresarenottaken,660-560millionpeopleinsub-SaharanAfricaand70millionpeopleindevelopingAsiawillstilllackaccesstoelectricityby2030,giventhetrendofincreasingpopulationnumbersintheseregions(IEAetal.,2023).

RATIONALEFOREXTENDINGACCESS

The2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopment,adoptedbyallUnitedNations(UN)memberstatesin2015,isdrivenby17sustainabledevelopmentgoals(SDGs).Ofthese,SDG7recognisesenergy’scatalyticroleindevelopmentanditsabilitytoovercomedeprivationandenhanceservices.TheSDG7goalstrivestoensureaccesstoaffordable,reliable,sustainableandmodernenergyforall.

Toachieveuniversalenergyaccess,electricitymustreachthecommunitieslivingonallareasoftheplanet,includingonhighmountainsandremoteislands.Accessmustbeextendedalsotothosewhohaveonlyaremotechanceofgridextension,suchascommunitiesdisplacedfromtheirhomelandduetoconflictorcivilstrifeandsomeIndigenousandtribalgroupsthathavelimitedexposuretomodernenergyoptions.Thisisknownaslastmileaccess.TheUN’sHigh-LevelDialogueonEnergymadeahigh-priorityrecommendationintheThemeReportonEnergyAccess,emphasisingthat“thelastmileofenergyaccessmustbecomethefirstmiletobetackled”(UnitedNations,2021).Tomakethishappen,electricityaccessratesmustimprovesignificantlyandreachthemostremote,poorestandmostvulnerablepopulationsegments,includingdisplacement-affectedcommunities.Inaddition,theaccesssolutionsneedtobecontext-sensitivetomeetthespecificneedsandsituationsofvulnerablepopulations(UnitedNations,2021).

Extendingelectricityaccesstotheseremotecommunitiesforbasicservices(Tier1+services;seeTable4)aloneisnotsufficient.Energyisanenablerandcanhaveadirectimpactoncommunitylivelihoods.Throughenergyaccessprogrammes,electricityprovisioncanpowerruralproductiveusesinadditiontohouseholdneeds.Usingelectricityforproductionmaximisesitsbenefitsforsuchcommunities,helpingtoalleviatepovertyandprovidebetterstandardsofliving.Inaddition,improvedcommunityandsocialservices–suchaspoweringhealthfacilities,schoolsandtrainingcentres,andwatersupplyandsanitation–highlightshowbyachievingtheobjectivesofSDG7,otherSDGtargetscanalsoberealised.

1TheUNdefinesleastdevelopedcountriesas“l(fā)ow-incomecountriesconfrontingseverestructuralimpedimentstosustainabledevelopment.Theyarehighlyvulnerabletoeconomicandenvironmentalshocksandhavelowlevelsofhumanassets”(UNDESA,n.d.).

2Access(toelectricity)rate(or“electrificationrate”)referstotheshareofthepopulationwithaccesstoelectricityoutofthetotalpopulationinthespecifiedtimeperiodorgeographicarea.Householdaccessispredominantlybasedonthemulti-tierframeworkwheretheminimumprovisionofaccesstoelectricityserviceistheequivalentofTier1andaboveTier1(BhatiaandAngelou,2015).

8|RENEWABLEENERGYFORREMOTECOMMUNITIES:AGUIDEBOOKFOROFF-GRIDPROJECTS

Photo:Mini-gridO&MhublitusingsolarPVinZanzanvillages,Coted’Ivoire(?AZIMUT360SCCL).

GRIDEXTENSIONvs.OFF-GRIDSOLUTIONS

Gridextensionisachievedbybuildingnewpowertransmissionanddistributionlines,transformers,andotherinfrastructuretoconnectremoteandunderserveduserstothemaingrid.Indenselypopulatedurbanareas,itisfinanciallyviableforutilitycompaniestoextendgridlinesbecausethedemandforelectricityishighandthereisvarieduseofelectricalappliancesandalargenumberofconnections.Thescaleandusagereducesthecostofbuildingnewinfrastructure.Inremoteareasandcommunitiesthathavelowelectricitydemand,ontheotherhand,thegridextensionapproachtendstobeexpensiveandunviable.Furthermore,investmentcostsareunmetduetolowtariffssetfortheirelectricityprovision.

Off-gridenergysystems(mini-gridorstand-alone),whichoperateindependentlyofthemainpowergrid,offeranopportunitytoprovideenergytoremoteandunservedcommunities.Thesystemstypicallyusefossilfuels,suchasindieselgenerators(DGs);however,theycanalsobepoweredbyrenewableenergytechnologies(RETs)suchassolar,wind,biomassorhybrid.Suchsystemscanbecustomisedanddesignedtomeetconsumers’specificandlowelectricityneeds.Choosingtoadoptsustainable,reliableandcleanenergyusingRETsmeanscommunitiescanreducetheirrelianceonthecostlyfossilfueloptionsthatarecommonlyusedtomeettheirelectricityneeds.

Gridextensionisthetraditionalapproachthatgovernmentprogrammesandfundingagenciestendtotakeupinextendingelectricityaccesstosettlements.Yet,gridextensionrequireslargeamountsofcapitalinvestmentsandtime,bothofwhichsloweffortsandpace.Themaingriddistributionlinesmustbeextendedoverlongdistancestoreachscatteredsettlementsand,mostoften,toprovideforlowpowerdemands.Forexample,providingaruralhouseholdconnectionthroughgridexpansioncostsUSD1100(UnitedStatesdollars)inVietNamandUSD2300inTanzania.Thecostsarealmosthalfthisinurbanareas,whereitcostsUSD570andUSD600-USD1100,respectively,inthesamecountries(Ehrhardtetal.,2019)

Addedtothecostsincurred,upfrontinvestmentswouldneedtobeextensivelysubsidised,orgrantdrivengiventhelowmonthlytariffsforend-consumerslivinginruralandremoteareas.Analysisofcost-reflectivetariffsacross39utilitiesinSub-SaharanAfricashowsthat25%oftheutilitiesrequireacost-reflectivetariffofUSD0.40perkilowatthour(kWh).Forabouthalftheutilities,itisintherangeofUSD0.20toUSD0.40/kWh,withthebalance,25%,oftheutilitiesrequiringlessthanUSD0.20/kWh.Theimplicationisthat,oftentimes,extendingaccessischeaperusingmini-gridsthanbyextendingthegrid(ESMAP,2022).

RENEWABLEENERGYFORREMOTECOMMUNITIES:AGUIDEBOOKFOROFF-GRIDPROJECTS|9

Evidence-basedstudiesshowthatoff-gridrenewable-basedsolutionsneedlowerinvestmentscomparedtogrid-connectedonesforextendingfullelectricityaccess.Theforecastscenarioshowsa30%reductionforlow-demandestimationsand5%reductionforhigh-demandestimationsincomparisontothecostsofextendingthegrid(Blechingeretal.,2019).Mini-gridspoweredbysolar,hydroandbiogastechnologiesprovidedelectricityaccessto11millionpeopleasof2021.Solarmini-gridsserveaboutathirdofthepopulationthatissuppliedbymini-gridsprovidingelectricity.Solarhasproventobetheleast-costoption,inadditiontoitseaseofdeploymentandscalability(IEAetal.,2023).

SCOPEOFTHEGUIDEBOOK

Thisguidebookexploresmethodsofelectricityprovision,throughrenewables,usingstand-alonesystemsandmini-grids.Itdescribesthekeyelementsthathelpdesignandoperateprojectsforelectricityprovision.Itscontentprovidesprojectproviders,communityleaders,privateenterprisesandgovernmentagencieswithanunderstandingofwhatisrequiredtoextendelectricityaccesstothelastmile.

Thefindingsofninecasestudiesinwhichelectricityprovisionwasextendedtoremotecommunitiesandthoseunservedbythegridaredetailed(seeAnnexI).Eachcasestudy–uniqueinitslocationandapproachofdeliverymechanism–illustratesthesuccessfactorsthatprovideforsmoothandsustainedoperations.

Thecasestudyprojectschosenforthisstudymeetabroadsetofcriteria:

?Theyhaveregionalrepresentation.

?Theybelongtothe“remote”categorydefinedinthestudy.

?TheyshowcasetheuseofdifferentRETs.

?Theyexhibitdeliverymechanismsdesignedforthelocalcontextinelectricitysupply.

?Theyshowcasesmoothsupplyoperationssinceprojectinception.

Theguidingprinciplesbasedonthefindingsinthisreporthavebeenfurthervalidatedusingfocusedgroupdiscussions(FGDs)andkeyinformantinterviews(KIIs)withprojectprincipals,keystakeholdersandsubjectexperts.

Table1liststheninecasestudies,abriefdescriptionofeachstudyandthereferenceprojecttitleusedinthisguidebook.

Table1Listofthecasestudiessurveyedandanalysed

Briefdescription

A940kWsolarphotovoltaic(PV)mini-gridsystemin

theremotenortherncommunityofOldCrow,Yukon,

reducesthecommunity’srelianceondieselforelectricity

generation.Yukongovernmentlegislationandpolicies,

aswellasapowerpurchaseagreement(PPA)withthe

localutility,ensurethatthecommunitybenefitsfromthe

project.Ongoingsince2016

RefugeesettlementsofDolloAdo,Bokolmayo

Woredas,Somaliregion,Ethiopia

FiverefugeecampsinDolloAdogetelectricityaccessfromsolarPVmini-gridsandwatersuppliedusing

off-gridsolarpumps.Solarco-operativesrunbythe

membersoftherefugeeandhostcommunity(inits

fringes)operatethesystemstomeethouseholdand

agriculture-relatedelectricityneeds.Ongoingsince2019

DolloAdo&

Bokolmayocamps,Ethiopia

IndigenouscommunityofOldCrow,Yukon,Canada

OldCrowcommunity,Canada

Referredtoas

Projecttitle

10|RENEWABLEENERGYFORREMOTECOMMUNITIES:AGUIDEBOOKFOROFF-GRIDPROJECTS

Projecttitle

Remotesettlements

inZanzanregion,

C?ted’Ivoire

Briefdescription

SevenremotevillagesinC?ted’Ivoireuseaninnovativedeliverymodelcombiningprivatesectorexpertise,

publiccapitalandstrongcommunityownershipthroughanoverarchingMini-GridFederationandTechnicians

Associations.Thereisstrongownershipfromthemini-gridusersoftheruralhouseholds,ensuringlong-termsustainability.Ongoingsince2012

Referredtoas

Zanzanvillages,

C?ted’Ivoire

RemotevillageofTotota,Liberia

IntheremotevillageofTotota,mini-gridusersformanelectricco-operativetobecomethefirst-evermicro-

utilityinLiberia.Theco-operative,setupinpartnershipwithNRECAInternational,showcasesthetremendous

potentialofcommunity-ownedco-operatives,impactingmorethan20000peoplethroughasustainable

community-drivendecentralisedrenewableenergy(DRE)deliverymodel.Ongoingsince2017

TototaVillage,Liberia

High-altitude,scatteredsettlementsinOaxaca,Mexico

UndertheLuzenCasa,Oaxaca(LightatHome)

programme,householdsettlementsinhigh-altitude

terraingetelectricityaccessfromthird-generation

solarhomesystems(SHSs).Innovativefinancing

comesfrompublic-financingestablishmentsaswellasequityownershipbytheSHSusers,madepossibleinpartthroughmicro-loansgrantedviaacrowdfundingplatform.Thesolutionhasanimpactonalarge

geographicalarea.Ongoingsince2012

Oaxacahouseholds,Mexico

RuralhillscommunityofOkhaldunga,Nepal

AlocalcommunityfromtheruralhillsinNepalhas

successfullysetupasolarPVmini-gridthrougha

privateenterprise.Thevillagersaretrainedtooperateandmanagetherenewableenergysystem.Revenue

earnedfromtheelectricitysupplyisgivenoutasmicro-loansthatinturnspureconomicactivity,ensuringthesustainabilityoftheproject.Ongoingsince2020

Okhaldungarural

hills,Nepal

Remoteislandcommunity,IsleofEigg,Scotland,

UnitedKingdom

LocatedinthewestofScotland,theIsleofEigg

communityof45householdschoseahybridrenewableenergysolutiontohelpreduceitsrelianceondiesel

fuel.Theproject’snotablefeaturesincludeausage

capaswellasaremarkable“traffic-light”systemthathelpsalignconsumptiontomanagedemandvs.supply,ensuringsustainedoperations.Ongoingsince2008

IsleofEigg,Scotland

RemoteruralvillagesofSarawakstate,Malaysia

UndertheSarawakAlternativeRuralElectrification

Scheme(SARES),theutility,SarawakEnergy,provideselectricityaccesstoveryremotevillagesusingoff-gridsolarPV-basedsolutionsasanapproachtoachievetotalelectrificationby2025.Ongoingsince2016

SarawakEnergy,

Malaysia

RemoteislandcommunityofLoltongVillage,Vanuatu

ThehybridDREsolutionofpico-hydroandsolarPV

systemsinmeetingthelocalcommunity’spowerneedsshowcasesaprovenmodeltobereplicatedbyother

suchcommunitiesforenergyself-sufficiencyandreducinguseofdieselfuel.Ongoingsince2021

Loltongremote

island,Vanuatu

RENEWABLEENERGYFORREMOTECOMMUNITIES:AGUIDEBOOKFOROFF-GRIDPROJECTS|11

1

REMOTECOMMUNITIES:SCOPEFOREXTENDINGELECTRICITYACCESS

DEFININGREMOTENESS

Remotecommunitieswithnogridaccesstypicallyhavelowpopulationdensity(andthereforelowelectricitydemand),lowincomes,difficultterrainsandpoortransportationinfrastructure.

Remotecommunitiesincludedinthescopeofthisstudyaredefinedasthosewithremotenessfromthepowergridforthreereasons:

.Theyaregeographicallyremotefromthemainlandandchallengedbydifficulttoaccessterrains,suchasruralsettings;mountainregions;small,isolatedislands;anddeepforestsettlements.

.Theyhavearemotechanceofgaininggridaccess,suchasrefugeecommunitiesdisplacedduetoconflict,internalstrifeandnaturalcalamities.

.Theyfullyrelyonoff-gridenergysourcesandhaveverylowdemandprofiles,suchassometribalandIndigenouscommunities.

Thethreesettlementtypesoverlapwithrespecttotheirdemandprofile(lowelectricityneeds),beingineconomicandenergypoverty,andhavingaremotechanceofattaininggrid-basedelectricitysupply.

REMOTECOMMUNITIESACROSSREGIONS

Thefollowingsectionsexaminemostoftheremotecommunitiesacrossregions,asdefinedbythestudy.Althoughonlyfragmenteddataonelectricityaccesstosuchsettlementsareavailable,theeffortistoshowcasethesize,spreadandlocationsofthesesettlements.Indoingso,itispossibletodeterminetheamountofeffortrequiredtoestablishreplicableworkingmodelsforelectricityprovisionandtheirpotentialtoreachtheseunservedsettlements.

Mountainpopulations

Asof2015,anestimated1050millionpeoplelivedinmountainareasincludedintheWorldConservationMonitoringCenter(WCMC)definition.3Overthe1975to2015period,theshareofmountainpopulationtototalworldpopulationremainedconstantat14%.Populationdensitiesarehighatlowaltitudesandverylowathigheraltitudes.One-thirdofmountainpopulationslivesincities,one-thirdintownsandsemi-dense

3TheWCMCclassificationcoversmountainregionsthatincludebothhillsandmountains.Atotalof22%oftheworld’sland,or29millionsquarekilometre(km2),isclassifiedasmountainregion,ofwhichabouthalfisbelow1000metres(m).Ruggedlandisconsideredmountainregionifitisatleast300mabovesealevel,butplateausandbroadvalleysrunningthroughthemountainsbelow2500marenotconsideredmountainregions.Alllandabove2500misclassifiedasmountain,includingplateaus.Thisaccountsfor20%ofthetotal.(Blythetal.,2002)

12|RENEWABLEENERGYFORREMOTECOMMUNITIES:AGUIDEBOOKFOROFF-GRIDPROJECTS

areas,andtheremainingone-thirdinruralareas.RegionaltrendsinurbanisationandpopulationgrowthshowincreasedpopulationgrowthinthemountainrangesofwesternAsia(withtheexceptionofAnatolia,Türkiye)andsouthernAsia,lowordecliningpopulationgrowthintherangesineasternAsiaandEurope,andmoderatepopulationgrowthmatchedwithhighurbanisationintheLatinAmericanranges(Ehrlichetal.,2021).

Thesesettlements’primaryenergyneedstendtobeforcooking,andspaceandwaterheating.ThefuelconsumptionpatternsintheHinduKushHimalaya(HKH)regionaretakenasrepresentativeofmountainsettlements.Here,thereisastrongrelianceonbiomass,whichisabundantlyavailable,whileliquidpetroleumisusedforprocessesinsmallindustriesandforrunningcommercialenterprises(seeBox1).

Box1EnergyconsumptionintheHinduKushHimalayaregion

ThepopulationlivinginthemountainareasoftheeightAsiancountries*thatformtheHKHregioncompriseabout9%ofitscollectivetotal.Atotalof52.4%oftheruralpopulationsoftheHKHcountries(WorldBank,n.d.)livewithoutaccesstoelectricity(thepopulationswiththeleastaccessareinMyanmar,followedbyPakistan),withpeoplelivinginthemountainsmakingupalargeshareofthosewithoutaccesstoelectricity.Householdsintheregionneedenergyforcookingandspaceheatingasapriority.Tomeetthisneed,householdsrelyheavilyonbiomass.Itsexcessiveusehasresultedinforestdegradation,indoorpollutionthattriggershealthissues,socialdeprivationassociatedwithcollectin