橋梁工程畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）-雀鼠谷大橋設(shè)計(jì)書連續(xù)梁箱梁

雀鼠谷大橋設(shè)計(jì)書學(xué)院：公路學(xué)院專業(yè)：橋梁工程姓名：摘要在本設(shè)計(jì)中，根據(jù)地形圖和任務(wù)書要求，依據(jù)現(xiàn)行公路橋梁設(shè)計(jì)規(guī)范提出了預(yù)應(yīng)力混凝土連續(xù)梁橋、預(yù)應(yīng)力混凝土連續(xù)剛構(gòu)、下承式拱橋三種橋型方案。按照“實(shí)用、經(jīng)濟(jì)、安全、美觀”的橋梁設(shè)計(jì)原則，經(jīng)過(guò)對(duì)各種橋型的比選最終選擇60m+90m+60m的預(yù)應(yīng)力混凝土連續(xù)梁橋?yàn)楸敬蔚耐扑]設(shè)計(jì)橋型。本設(shè)計(jì)利用橋梁博士軟件進(jìn)行結(jié)構(gòu)分析，根據(jù)橋梁的尺寸擬定建立橋梁基本模型，然后進(jìn)行內(nèi)力分析，計(jì)算配筋結(jié)果，進(jìn)行施工各階段分析及截面驗(yàn)算。同時(shí)，必須要考慮混凝土收縮、徐變次內(nèi)力和溫度次內(nèi)力等因素的影響。本設(shè)計(jì)主要是預(yù)應(yīng)力混凝土連續(xù)梁橋的上部結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)，設(shè)計(jì)中主要進(jìn)行了橋梁總體布置及結(jié)構(gòu)尺寸擬定、橋梁荷載內(nèi)力計(jì)算、橋梁預(yù)應(yīng)力鋼束的估算與布置、橋梁預(yù)應(yīng)力損失及應(yīng)力的驗(yàn)算、次內(nèi)力的驗(yàn)算、內(nèi)力組合驗(yàn)算、主梁截面應(yīng)力驗(yàn)算。最后，經(jīng)過(guò)分析驗(yàn)算表明該設(shè)計(jì)計(jì)算方法正確，內(nèi)力分布合理，符合設(shè)計(jì)任務(wù)的要求。關(guān)鍵字：比選方案；連續(xù)梁橋；連續(xù)剛構(gòu)；拱橋；結(jié)構(gòu)分析；驗(yàn)算ABSTRACTInthisdesign,accordingtothetopography,andprojectrequirements，accordingtothecurrenthighwaybridgedesignspecificationofprestressedconcretecontinuousgirderbridgeforward,Prestressedconcretecontinuousrigid-framestructure，XiaChengShiarchbridgethreeschemes.Accordingtothe"practical,beautiful,safe,economicandconvenientforconstructionofbridgedesignprinciples,structureafterthebridgeofvariousfinalchoiceof60m+90+60mprestressedconcretecontinuousgirderbridgedesignforthisrecommendation.Thisdesignusingthedrbridgesoftwareanalysisthestructure，accordingtothesizeofthebridge,thebasicmodelestablishmentbridgeworked，thenforceanalysis，calculationresultsofreinforced，foreachphaseanalysisandconstruction.Atthesametime,mustconsidertheconcreteshrinkage,Creepforcetimesandtemperatureresultanttimesfactors.Thedesignofprestressedconcretecontinuousgirderbridgeismainlytheupperstructuredesign,inthedesignofthemainbridgelayoutandstructuresize，loadcalculation，bridgeprestressingtendonsestimationandlayout，thelossofprestressandstressofthebridge，theresultantchecked，internalcombinationcalculation，sectionstresscalculationgirder.Finally,afteranalysisshowsthatthedesigncalculationmethodofcalculatingtheinternalforcedistribution,reasonable,complywiththedesignrequirementsofthetask.KEYWORDS：Selectionscheme；Continuousgirderbridge；Continuousrigid-framestructure；Archbridge；Structureanalysis；checkingcomputation┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊裝┊┊┊┊┊訂┊┊┊┊┊線┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊┊ 畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)報(bào)告目錄第一章概述 頁(yè)參考文獻(xiàn)1、《結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)原理》葉見(jiàn)曙人民交通出版社2、土木工程專業(yè)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)指南—橋梁工程分冊(cè)陳忠延等編著3、《預(yù)應(yīng)力混凝土連續(xù)梁橋設(shè)計(jì)》徐岳、王亞君、萬(wàn)振江。人民交通出版社4、《橋梁工程》范立礎(chǔ)人民交通出版社5、《基礎(chǔ)工程》教材6、《橋涵水文》教材7、《橋梁計(jì)算示例集》人民交通出版社8、《橋梁上部結(jié)構(gòu)計(jì)算示例（二）》重慶交通學(xué)院等校合編9、中華人民共和國(guó)交通部標(biāo)準(zhǔn).公路工程技術(shù)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)（STJ001-97）.北京:人民交通出版社,1997.10、中華人民共和國(guó)交通部標(biāo)準(zhǔn).公路橋涵地基與基礎(chǔ)設(shè)計(jì)規(guī)范（JTJ024-85）.北京:人民交通出版社,1985.11、中華人民共和國(guó)交通部標(biāo)準(zhǔn).公路鋼筋混凝土及預(yù)應(yīng)力混凝土橋涵設(shè)計(jì)規(guī)范（STJ023-85）.北京:人民交通出版社,1985.12、中華人民共和國(guó)交通部標(biāo)準(zhǔn).公路橋涵設(shè)計(jì)通用規(guī)范（JTJ021-89）.北京:人民交通出版社,1989.附錄：外文翻譯EvolvementofbridgeEngineering,briefreviewAmongtheearlydocumentedreviewsofconstructionmaterialsandstructuretypesarethebooksofMarcusVitruviosPolliointhefirstcenturyB.C.ThebasicprinciplesofstaticsweredevelopedbytheGreeks,andwereexemplifiedinworksandapplicationsbyLeonardodaVinci,Cardeno,andGalileo.Inthefifteenthandsixteenthcentury,engineersseemedtobeunawareofthisrecord,andreliedsolelyonexperienceandtraditionforbuildingbridgesandaqueducts.ThestateoftheartchangedrapidlytowardtheendoftheseventeenthcenturywhenLeibnitz,Newton,andBernoulliintroducedmathematicalformulations.PublishedworksbyLahire(1695)andBelidor(1792)aboutthetheoreticalanalysisofstructuresprovidedthebasisinthefieldofmechanicsofmaterials.Kuzmanovic(1977)focusesonstoneandwoodasthefirstbridge-buildingmaterials.Ironwasintroducedduringthetransitionalperiodfromwoodtosteel.Accordingtorecentrecords,concretewasusedinFranceasearlyas1840forabridge39feet(12m)longtospantheGaroyneCanalatGrisoles,butreinforcedconcretewasnotintroducedinbridgeconstructionuntilthebeginningofthiscentury.Prestressedconcretewasfirstusedin1927.Stonebridgesofthearchtype(integratedsuperstructureandsubstructure)wereconstructedinRomeandotherEuropeancitiesinthemiddleages.Thesearcheswerehalf-circular,withflatarchesbeginningtodominatebridgeworkduringtheRenaissanceperiod.Thisconceptwasmarkedlyimprovedattheendoftheeighteenthcenturyandfoundstructurallyadequatetoaccommodatefuturerailroadloads.Intermsofanalysisanduseofmaterials,stonebridgeshavenotchangedmuch,butthetheoreticaltreatmentwasimprovedbyintroducingthepressure-lineconceptintheearly1670s(Lahire,1695).Thearchtheorywasdocumentedinmodeltestswheretypicalfailuremodeswereconsidered(Frezier,1739).Culmann(1851)introducedtheelasticcentermethodforfixed-endarches,andshowedthatthreeredundantparameterscanbefoundbytheuseofthreeequationsofcoMPatibility.WoodentrusseswereusedinbridgesduringthesixteenthcenturywhenPalladiobuilttriangularframesforbridgespans10feetlong.Thiseffortalsofocusedonthethreebasicprinciplesogbridgedesign:convenience(serviceability),appearance,andendurance(strength).severaltimbertrussbridgeswereconstructedinwesternEuropebeginninginthe1750swithspansupto200feet(61m)supportedonstonesubstructures.SignificantprogresswaspossibleintheUnitedStatesandRussiaduringthenineteenthcentury,promptedbytheneedtocrossmajorriversandbyanabundanceofsuitabletimber.Favorableeconomicconsiderationsincludedinitiallowcostandfastconstruction.Thetransitionfromwoodenbridgestosteeltypesprobablydidnotbeginuntilabout1840,althoughthefirstdocumenteduseofironinbridgeswasthechainbridgebuiltin1734acrosstheOderRiverinPrussia.Thefirsttrusscompletelymadeofironwasin1840intheUnitedStates,followedbyEnglandin1845,Germanyin1853,andRussiain1857.In1840,thefirstironarchtrussbridgewasbuiltacrosstheErieCanalatUtica.TheImpetusofAnalysisThetheoryofstructuresThetheoryofstructures,developedmainlyintheninetheenthcentury,focusedontrussanalysis,withthefirstbookonbridgeswrittenin1811.TheWarrentriangulartrusswasintroducedin1846,supplementedbyamethodforcalculatingthecorrecetforces.I-beamsfabricatedfromplatesbecamepopularinEnglandandwereusedinshort-spanbridges.In1866,Culmannexplainedtheprinciplesofcantilevertrussbridges,andoneyearlaterthefirstcantileverbridgewasbuiltacrosstheMainRiverinHassfurt,Germany,withacenterspanof425feet(130m).ThefirstcantileverbridgeintheUnitedStateswasbuiltin1875acrosstheKentuckyRiver.AmostimpressiverailwaycantileverbridgeinthenineteenthcenturywastheFirstofForthbridge,builtbetween1883and1893,withspanmagnitudesof1711feet(521.5m).Ataboutthesametime,structuralsteelwasintroducedasaprimematerialinbridgework,althoughitsqualitywasoftenpoor.SeveralearlyexamplesaretheEadsbridgeinSt.Louis;theBrooklynbridgeinNewYork;andtheGlasgowbridgeinMissouri,allcompletedbetween1874and1883.AmongtheanalyticalanddesignprogresstobementionedarethecontributionsofMaxwell,particularlyforcertainstaticallyindeterminatetrusses;thebooksbyCremona(1872)ongraphicalstatics;theforcemethodredefinedbyMohr;andtheworksbyClapeyronwhointroducedthethree-momentequations.TheImpetusofNewMaterialsSincethebeginningofthetwentiethcentury,concretehastakenitsplaceasoneofthemostusefulandimportantstructuralmaterials.BecauseofthecoMParativeeasewithwhichitcanbemoldedintoanydesiredshape,itsstructuralusesarealmostunlimited.WhereverPortlandcementandsuitableaggregatesareavailable,itcanreplaceothermaterialsforcertaintypesofstructures,suchasbridgesubstructureandfoundationelements.Inaddition,theintroductionofreinforcedconcreteinmultispanframesatthebeginningofthiscenturyimposednewanalyticalrequirements.Structuresofahighorderofredundancycouldnotbeanalyzedwiththeclassicalmethodsofthenineteenthcentury.TheimportanceofjointrotationwasalreadydemonstratedbyManderla(1880)andBendixen(1914),whodevelopedrelationshipsbetweenjointmomentsandangularrotationsfromwhichtheunknownmomentscanbeobtained,thesocalledslope-deflectionmethod.MoresimplificationsinframeanalysisweremadepossiblebytheworkofCalisev(1923),whousedsuccessiveapproximationstoreducethesystemofequationstoonesimpleexpressionforeachiterationstep.ThisapproachwasfurtherrefinedandintegratedbyCross(1930)inwhatisknownasthemethodofmomentdistribution.Oneofthemostimportimportantrecentdevelopmentsintheareaofanalyticalproceduresistheextensionofdesigntocovertheelastic-plasticrange,alsoknownasloadfactororultimatedesign.PlasticanalysiswasintroducedwithsomepracticalobservationsbyTresca(1846);andwasformulatedbySaint-Venant(1870),TheconceptofplasticityattractedresearchersandengineersafterWorldWarⅠ,mainlyinGermany,withthecenterofactivityshiftingtoEnglandandtheUnitedStatesafterWorldWarⅡ.Theprobabilisticapproachisanewdesignconceptthatisexpectedtoreplacetheclassicaldeterministicmethodology.Amainstepforwardwasthe1969additionoftheFederalHighwayAdiministration(FHWA)”CriteriaforReinforcedConcreteBridgeMembers“thatcoversstrengthandserviceabilityatultimatedesign.Thiswaspreparedforuseinconjunctionwiththe1969AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayOffficials(AASHO)StandardSpecification,andwaspresentedinaformatthatisreadilyadaptabletothedevelopmentofultimatedesignspecifications.Accordingtothisdocument,theproportioningofreinforcedconcretemembers(includingcolumns)maybelimitedbyvariousstagesofbehavior:elastic,cracked,andultimate.Designaxialloads,ordesignshears.Structuralcapacityisthereactionphase,andallcalculatedmodifiedstrengthvaluesderivedfromtheoreticalstrengthsarethecapacityvalues,suchasmomentcapacity,axialloadcapacity,orshearcapacity.Atserviceabilitystates,investigationsmayalsobenecessaryfordeflections,maximumcrackwidth,andfatigue.BridgeTypesAnotablebridgetypeisthesuspensionbridge,withthefirstexamplebuiltintheUnitedStatesin1796.ProblemsofdynamicstabilitywereinvestigatedaftertheTacomabridgecollapse,andthisworkledtosignificanttheoreticalcontributionsSteinman(1929)summarizesabout250suspensionbridgesbuiltthroughouttheworldbetween1741and1928.Withtheintroductionoftheinterstatesystemandtheneedtoprovidestructuresatgradeseparations,certainbridgetypeshavetakenastrongplaceinbridgepractice.Theseincludeconcretesuperstructures(slab,T-beams,concreteboxgirders),steelbeamandplategirders,steelboxgirders,compositeconstruction,orthotropicplates,segmentalconstruction,curvedgirders,andcable-stayedbridges.Prefabricatedmembersaregivenseriousconsideration,whileinterestinboxsectionsremainsstrong.LOADSANDLOADINGGROUPSTheloadstobeconsideredinthedesignofsubstructuresandbridgefoundationsincludeloadsandforcestransmittedfromthesuperstructure,andthoseactingdirectlyonthesubstructureandfoundation.AASHTOloads.Section3ofAASHTOspecificationssummarizestheloadsandforcestobeconsideredinthedesignofbridges(superstructureandsubstructure).Briefly,thesearedeadload,liveload,iMPactordynamiceffectofliveload,windload,andotherforcessuchaslongitudinalforces,centrifugalforce,thermalforces,earthpressure,buoyancy,shrinkageandlongtermcreep,ribshortening,erectionstresses,iceandcurrentpressure,collisionforce,andearthquakestresses.Besidestheseconventionalloadsthataregenerallyquantified,AASHTOalsorecognizesindirectloadeffectssuchasfrictionatexpansionbearingsandstressesassociatedwithdifferentialsettlementofbridgecomponents.TheLRFDspecificationsdivideloadsintotwodistinctcategories:permanentandtransient.PermanentloadsDeadLoad:thisincludestheweightDCofallbridgecomponents,appurtenancesandutilities,wearingsurfaceDWandfutureoverlays,andearthfillEV.BothAASHTOandLRFDspecificationsgivetablessummarizingtheunitweightsofmaterialscommonlyusedinbridgework.TransientLoadsVehicularLiveLoad(LL)Vehicleloadingforshort-spanbridges:considerableefforthasbeenmadeintheUnitedStatesandCanadatodevelopaliveloadmodelthatcanrepresentthehighwayloadingmorerealisticallythantheHortheHSAASHTOmodels.ThecurrentAASHTOmodelisstilltheapplicableloading.SizeEffectsandtheDynamicResponseofPlainConcreteInthelastcoupleofdecades,therehavebeennumerousreportsBa?ant1984;CarpinteriandChiaia1997;Karihaloo1999;JenqandShah1985aboutthespecimensizeefectsinquasi-brittlematerials.Forthesematerials,Ba?antstatesthatthesourceofthesizeefectisamismatchbetweenthesizedependenceoftheenegyreleaserateandtherateofenegyconsumedbyfractureBa?ant2000.Whereasasignificantportionoftheformerin-creasesasthesquareofthespecimensize,thelatterincreaseslinearl.Thus,thereductioninthenominalstressisseenasameansofcompensatingforthisvariancebyreducingtheenegyreleaserateofthespecimen..Unlikewithquasi-staticloading,thestudyofspecimensizeefectsinthedynamicdomainhasnotreceivedmuchattention.Suchattemptsareconfinedlagelytofibe-reinforcedpolymersMorton1998;Qianetal.1990;Liuetal.1998;Han1998.Thedatawithrespecttocement-basedmaterialsisextremelyscarceBa?antandGettu1992;OhandChung1988;Krauthammeretal.2003;Elfahaletal.2004;BanthiaandBindiganavile2002andattentiontowardsimpactratesisveryrecent.Alackofdesigncodesorevenastandardmethodforlaboratorytestinghindersourabilitytocharacterizebuildingmaterialsforconstructingimpactandblastresistantfacilities.Moreove,impacttestingin-troducesseveralextraneousinfluencessuchastheinertiaBanthiaetal.1987andtestmachineefectsBanthiaandBindiganavile2002.Perhapsthemostseriousimpedimentistheinherentstress-ratesensitivityofcement-basedcomposites.Mortonstatesthatitisnotpossibletoproduceanexactscalemodelforrate-sensitivematerialsMorton1998.Furthe,thesuitabilityofknownscalingmodelsunderdynamicratesisstillunderscrutin.Inthiscontext,aspecialemphasismustbeassignedtoexplainingtheissuesofscalingforcement-basedmaterialsunderhighstressrates.Inthispape,thesizeefectontheimpactresponseofconcreteispresentedthroughanassessmentofrecentlypublisheddatabythewritersandothers.Familiarscalinglawsdevelopedforquasi-staticloadingareexaminedinthecontextofdynamicstressrates.Thispaperdiscussestheinterplaybetweenthespecimensize,matrixstrength,stressratesensitivit,andloadingconfiguration.ScalingLawsforQuasi-BrittleSystemsItiswellknownthatthequasi-staticresponseofplainconcreteisafectedbythesizeofthespecimen.Evidencegatheredoverdecadesrevealsastrongdependenceonsizeforstructuralcon-cretebehaviorundercompressionSabnisandMirza1979,ten-sionBa?antetal.1991;vanMierandvanVliet2002,flexureright1952;Ba?antandLi1995;JueshiandHui1997,shearBa?antandSun1987,andtorsionZhouetal.1998.Threeapproachesdominatethestudyofsizeefectsinquasi-brittlema-terialsBa?antandChen1997:1. Thestatisticaltheoryofrandomstrength;2. Thetheoryofstressredistributionandfractureenegyreleasecausedbylagecracks;and3. Thetheoryofcrackfractalit.Ba?antsSizeEfectLaw?Ba?ant1984…AccordingtoBa?ant,thesizeefectinsolidsisasmoothtransi-tionfromthestrengthcriterionofplasticityapplicabletosmallsizespecimenstothecracksizedependenceoflinearelasticfracturemechanicsLEFMasseeninmuchlagerspecimens.Thefailurestressofaseriesofgeometricallysimilarspecimensofconcreteisdescribedbythefollowinginfiniteseries:MultifractalScalingLaw?CarpinteriandChiaia1997…Carpinteriandhisassociatesusedtheconceptofself-similarmorphologieswithnonintegerdimensionscalledfractalstode-scribethemicrostructureofquasi-brittlematerialssuchascon-crete.ithanincreaseinthescaleofobservation,thetopologicalfractalityisthoughttovanish.Asthemicrostructureofahetero-geneousmaterialremainsthesameregardlessofsize,theypro-posedthattheinfluenceofmacroscopicsizeonthemechanicalpropertieswasaresultoftheinteractionbetweenthedimensionbandacharacteristiclengthlchforthespecimen.Onthebasisofthishypothesis,thefollowingmultifractalscalinglawMFSLwasproposed:whereft=asymptoticvalueofthenominalstrengthuatinfinitesizes.AsopposedtoBSEL,MFSLappearstosuitunnotchedspecimens,astheyhavearesidualstrengthevenforextremelylagesizes.橋梁工程的發(fā)展概況早在公元前1世紀(jì)，MarcusVitruciosPollio的著作中就有關(guān)于建筑材料和結(jié)構(gòu)類型的記載和評(píng)述。后來(lái)古希臘人創(chuàng)立了靜力學(xué)的基本原理，LeonardodaVinci、Cardeno和Galileo等人在工作和應(yīng)用中也證實(shí)了這些原理的正確性。而在15世紀(jì)至16世紀(jì)期間，工程師們似乎并沒(méi)有注意到這些文字記載，只是單憑經(jīng)驗(yàn)和傳統(tǒng)來(lái)建造橋梁和渡槽。到了17世紀(jì)末，隨著Leibnitz、Newton和Bernoulli的數(shù)學(xué)理論的創(chuàng)立，橋梁建筑技術(shù)得到了快速發(fā)展。Lahire(1695)和belidor（1729）出版的關(guān)于結(jié)構(gòu)理論分析的著作為材料力學(xué)領(lǐng)域奠定了基礎(chǔ)。Kuzmanovic（1977）指出，石材和木材是橋梁建筑最早采用的材料。在從木材到鋼材的轉(zhuǎn)變過(guò)程中，鐵作為一種過(guò)渡材料被用于橋梁建筑中。根據(jù)近期的記載。早在1840年，法國(guó)就在Grisoles建造了一座跨度為39英尺（12米）的橫跨Garoyne運(yùn)河的混凝土橋梁，但鋼筋混凝土橋直到本世紀(jì)初才出現(xiàn)，而預(yù)應(yīng)力混凝土到1927年才開(kāi)始使用。早在中世紀(jì)，羅馬和歐洲的其他一些城市開(kāi)始建造集上下部結(jié)構(gòu)于一體的半圓弧石拱橋，而文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期則是坦拱逐漸占主導(dǎo)地位。這種觀念在18世紀(jì)末有了明顯的改進(jìn)，并發(fā)現(xiàn)其在結(jié)構(gòu)上能適應(yīng)后來(lái)的鐵路荷載。在材料的分析和使用上，石拱橋至今沒(méi)有發(fā)生大的變化，但是由于在17世紀(jì)70年代初期（Lahire,1965）引進(jìn)了壓力線的概念，使得拱橋的理論分析得到了改進(jìn)。通過(guò)模型試驗(yàn)，有關(guān)拱結(jié)構(gòu)的主要失效形式的理論得到了證實(shí)（Frezier,1739）。對(duì)于無(wú)鉸拱，Culmann(1851)引進(jìn)了彈性中心的方法，顯示了可用三個(gè)協(xié)調(diào)方程求解三個(gè)多余參數(shù)。當(dāng)palladio建造了一座跨度為10英尺的三角形木制框架橋后，16世紀(jì)開(kāi)始，木桁架在橋梁中得到應(yīng)用。這些設(shè)計(jì)同樣遵循橋梁設(shè)計(jì)的三個(gè)基本原則：方便（實(shí)用性）、美觀和耐久性（強(qiáng)度）。18世紀(jì)50年代西歐建造了若干座支承于石制橋墩上的木桁架橋，其跨度達(dá)到200英尺（61米）。19世紀(jì)期間，美國(guó)和俄羅斯由于其跨越主要河流的需要，而且兩國(guó)都具有豐富的適用于建橋的木材資源，因此木制橋梁在美、俄兩國(guó)有可能取得更為顯著的成績(jī)。木制橋梁具有良好的經(jīng)濟(jì)性，因?yàn)槠涑跗谕顿Y較低，施工速度較快。盡管有文獻(xiàn)記載，早在1734年，在普魯士就修建了第一座橫跨Oder河的鐵鏈橋，但從木橋到鋼橋的過(guò)渡大概開(kāi)始于1840年。美國(guó)于1840年建成了第一座全鐵桁架橋，其后，英格蘭、德國(guó)和俄羅斯分別于1845年、1853年和1857年也建成了鐵桁架橋。1840年，第一座鐵桁架拱橋出現(xiàn)在Utica的Erie運(yùn)河上。理論分析的推動(dòng)作用主要從19世紀(jì)發(fā)展起來(lái)的機(jī)構(gòu)分析理論著重于桁架的分析，首部關(guān)于橋梁工程的著作于1811年出版。1846年出現(xiàn)了一種Warren三角形桁架和計(jì)算這種桁架精確內(nèi)力的分析方法。用板件組合而成的工字形梁在英國(guó)逐漸普及并在小跨度橋梁中得到應(yīng)用。1866年Culmann闡述了懸臂桁架橋的原理，一年后在德國(guó)的Hassfurt的Main河上就建造了首座主跨跨度達(dá)425英尺（130米）的懸臂梁橋。美國(guó)的首座懸臂梁橋于1875年建于Kentucky河上。19世紀(jì)最引人注目的鐵路懸臂梁橋要數(shù)FirthofForth橋，此橋建于1883年至1890年間，跨度達(dá)1，711英尺（521.5米）大約就在這一時(shí)期，結(jié)構(gòu)鋼在橋梁工程中作為一種主要材料被推廣應(yīng)用，盡管此時(shí)鋼材的性能大都較差。幾個(gè)早期的工程實(shí)例是：（1）St.Louis的Eads橋；（2）NewYork的Brooklyn橋；（3）Missouri的Glasgow大橋，這些橋都建于1874年至1883年間。談起對(duì)結(jié)構(gòu)分析河設(shè)計(jì)理論的改進(jìn)特別應(yīng)該提到：Maxwell所作的貢獻(xiàn)，尤其是他在超靜定桁架方面的工作；Cremona關(guān)于圖解靜力學(xué)的著作（1872）；由Mohr重新定義的力法以及Clapeyron提出的三彎矩方程新材料的推動(dòng)作用自從20世紀(jì)初起，混凝土就是一直是最有效和最重要的建筑材料之一。由于混凝土可以較容易地澆注成各種形狀的結(jié)構(gòu)物，因此它在建筑上的使用價(jià)值幾乎是無(wú)限的。只要有普通水泥和合適的骨料混凝土就可以替代其他材料建造某些類型的結(jié)構(gòu)，諸如橋梁下部結(jié)構(gòu)及基礎(chǔ)等。另外，在本世紀(jì)初，鋼筋混凝土在多跨框架結(jié)構(gòu)中的應(yīng)用對(duì)結(jié)構(gòu)分析提出了新的分析要求用19世紀(jì)的古典分析方法不能用來(lái)分析高次靜定結(jié)構(gòu)。Manderla(1880)和Bendixen(1914)論證了節(jié)點(diǎn)轉(zhuǎn)角的重要性，提出了節(jié)點(diǎn)彎矩和轉(zhuǎn)角之間的關(guān)系，從而可求解未知的節(jié)點(diǎn)彎矩，這種方法被稱為轉(zhuǎn)角－撓度法。Calisev(1923)的工作使得框架結(jié)構(gòu)的分析有可能進(jìn)一步簡(jiǎn)化，他利用逐步近似的方法將方程組的求解簡(jiǎn)化為一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單表達(dá)式的迭代計(jì)算。Cross(1930)進(jìn)一步改進(jìn)和歸納了這種方法，從而形成了彎矩分配法。在結(jié)構(gòu)分析領(lǐng)域的近期發(fā)展中最重要的改進(jìn)之一是將設(shè)計(jì)的范圍延伸到彈塑性范圍，即所謂的荷載因子法或極限狀態(tài)設(shè)計(jì)法。Tresca(1846)根據(jù)一些世紀(jì)觀察結(jié)果提出了塑性分析法，Saint-Venant(1870)系統(tǒng)地闡述了這種分析方法。第一次世界大戰(zhàn)以后，塑性的概念吸引著研究人員和工程師們的注意力，開(kāi)始主要是在德國(guó)。二次世界大戰(zhàn)后，隨著科研學(xué)術(shù)重心的轉(zhuǎn)移，英國(guó)和美國(guó)的科研人員對(duì)此進(jìn)行了廣泛的研究。概率設(shè)計(jì)法