unit7presupposition市公開課一等獎(jiǎng)省賽課微課金獎(jiǎng)?wù)n件

Unit7PragmaticPresupposition

/entries/presupposition/1/76PresuppositionOutlineIntroductionTheoryDailyuse

AdsAnalysisPresuppositionandEntailmentTypesorTriggers2/76PresuppositionIntroductionTheoryDailyUse

AdsAnalysisPresuppositionandEntailmentTypesorTriggers3/76Presupposition預(yù)設(shè)4/76Presupposition: Whataspeakerorwriterassumesthatthereceiversalreadyknows5/76Whydoespresuppositionexist?

Becauseitenablesustocommunicatesuccinctly.Itismucheasiertosay… Johndoesn’twriteanymore…thanitistosay…..ApersonwebothknowandagreethathisnameisJohn,andwhoknowshowtowrite,andwhoisabletowritepoetry,wrotepoetryinsomepasttime,andknowhedoesnotwritepoetry6/76Watchavideoadvertisement,doyouknowwhatitisadvertising?7/76TrueLoveIllyCoffee8/76PresuppositionIntroductionTheoryDailyUse

AdsAnalysisPresuppositionandEntailmentTypesorTriggers9/76Definition

Apresuppositionisbackgroundbelief,relatingtoanutterance,thatmustbemutuallyknownorassumedbythespeakerandaddresseefortheutterancetobeconsideredappropriateincontextgenerallywillremainanecessaryassumptionwhethertheutteranceisplacedintheformofanassertion,denial,orquestion,andcangenerallybeassociatedwithaspecificlexicalitemorgrammaticalfeature(presuppositiontrigger)intheutterance.10/76Pragmaticpresuppositionis“somethingthespeakerassumestobethecasepriortomakinganutteranceoramessagepreconditionfortheprocessingofanycommunication”(Yule,1996:25).Pragmaticpresuppositionsarebestdescribedasarelationbetweenaspeakerandtheappropriatenessofasentenceinacontext(Levinson,1997:177).Speakers,notsentences,havepresuppositions(Yule,1996:25).11/76何自然(1997)hassummarizedvariouskindsofpragmaticpresuppositionsasthefollowing:1)speaker’sassumptionofthecontextinwhichanutteranceismade,2)mutualknowledge,3)felicityconditionstobesatisfiedforaspeechacttobeperformed.12/76TheutteranceJohnregretsthathestoppeddoinglinguisticsbeforeheleftCambridgehasthefollowingpresuppositions:ThereissomeoneuniquelyidentifiabletospeakerandaddresseeasJohn.JohnstoppeddoinglinguisticsbeforeheleftCambridge.JohnwasdoinglinguisticsbeforeheleftCambridge.JohnleftCambridge.JohnhadbeenatCambridge.13/76SomemoreonthepragmatictheoryInfluentialexponentsincludeStalnaker(1974):suggestedthatwhenpeoplecommunicate,theyhaveacommongroundthisisabackgroundsetofassumptionsthattheybothmake,andknowtobetruepresuppositionworksagainstthiscommongroundfelicitoususeofanutterancerequiresthatitspresuppositionsbecommonlyheldbyallinterlocutors14/76DealingwithnewpresuppositionsIt’safactaboutcommunicationthatnoteverythingwepresupposeisknowntoourinterlocutorA:Mydogdied.B:Didn’tknowyouhadone.Waysout:wecanaskforclarificationsometimes,wedon’tbecausethepresuppositionisquiteclearandobviousWejustadoptit.15/76AccommodationLewis(1979)suggestedthatinterlocutorscarryoutaccomodation: Ifattimetsomethingissaidthatpresupposesp,butpisnotpresupposed(notincommonground),then,allotherthingsbeingequal,pisintroducedinthecommonground.16/76Ordinaryconversationdoesnotalwaysproceedintheidealorderlyfashiondescribedearlier.Peopledomakeleapsandshortcutsbyusingsentenceswhosepresuppositionsarenotsatisfiedintheconversationalcontext.Thisistheruleratherthantheexception[…]Ithinkwecanmaintainthatasentenceisalwaystakentobeanincrementtoacontextthatsatisfiesitspresuppositions.Ifthecurrentconversationalcontextdoesnotsuffice,thelistenerisentitledandexpectedtoextenditasrequired.(Karttunen1974:191)17/76AccommodationexampleSpeakerA(toB):Theguywhomurderedmycatwasreallyinsane.They’venowputhiminanasylum.SupposeBdidn’tknowmycatwasmurdered.ThedefinitedescriptiontheguywhomurderedmycatpresupposesthatthereisonepersonwhowasthemurdererofmycatBcanaccommodatethis,byassumingthatit’strueandisnowpartofcommonground18/76PresuppositionIntroductionTheoryDailyUse

AdsAnalysisPresuppositionandEntailmentTypesorTriggers19/76預(yù)設(shè)在日常生活對話中

應(yīng)用和分析場景1：一家三口在吃火鍋。背景是這家小孩很喜歡吃炸面筋。平時(shí)學(xué)校放學(xué)后他就喜歡馬上去買來吃。恰好今天餐桌上就有炸面筋。對話就這么開始了。母親：小新啊，你看，你最喜歡吃炸面筋好了?？斐脽岢园　鹤樱厚R上夾起一塊就放嘴里。母親：怎樣？不錯(cuò)吧？兒子：超好吃?。。?！母親：你看，家里煮面筋又好吃，又潔凈，以后盡可能不要在外面吃了，知道嗎？兒子：哦，知道了。20/76分析:這里母親在與兒子對話中預(yù)設(shè)了在外面吃不潔凈，不好吃，所以對話中橙色部分就是預(yù)設(shè)。這里，預(yù)設(shè)了在外面吃東西不衛(wèi)生這個(gè)客觀情況。目標(biāo):母親與兒子對話在這里到達(dá)了她教育目標(biāo):以后不要在外面亂吃東西。21/76場景2：大學(xué)宿舍小新剛下課。當(dāng)他回到自己座位旁，發(fā)覺了女朋友送他水杯掉在了地上，旁邊站著小覺是一臉無辜表情。小新：這是怎么回事？小覺：這個(gè)，這個(gè)……小新：你什么時(shí)候把他打爛？小覺：不是我啊，我也剛進(jìn)來22/76作用:預(yù)設(shè)除了能夠用于教育小輩之外（例1），還能夠使聽者有被責(zé)備感覺。不過這會(huì)使對話無法進(jìn)行下去。而且很輕易造成誤會(huì)。因?yàn)檫@里小新預(yù)設(shè)了杯就是小覺打爛。但事實(shí)可能是他人打爛或是別原因，只是小覺剛好站那里就招致誤會(huì)了。當(dāng)然，預(yù)設(shè)在日常生活中應(yīng)用是舉不勝舉。此處就不再細(xì)列。23/76PresuppositionIntroductionTheoryDailyUse

AdsAnalysisPresuppositionandEntailmentTypesorTriggers24/76動(dòng)感地帶周杰倫紙條篇

StudentA:老師,我沒有……StudentB:你看錯(cuò)了吧……老師.老師,我們沒有作弊.Theteacher:你看到他們傳紙條了嗎?你看到他們作弊了嗎?StudentC:沒有.他們發(fā)短信.

他們發(fā)短信作弊.25/76動(dòng)感地帶周杰倫紙條篇

短信無處不在我地盤,我短信26/76臺(tái)北市政府喝酒不開車篇我不該愛他.我愛他.我不該相信他.我相信他.我不該在他喝酒以后,還把車鑰匙給他.他喝了酒.我把車鑰匙給了他.27/76DrunkAlcoholKeyoftheCarCasualtyCarAccident28/76WrittenAdvertisements1.You’llwanttheCapitalOneNoHasslePlatinumcard,thedifferentcreditcardwithlowrate.Alowratethatstayslowwithoutintroductoryoffer,withoutexpiryrate.Justoneflatrateof6.9%p.aforbothbalancetransfersandpurchases.That’sit.Youcanrelax,knowingyou’vegottheflatrate,andwon’thavethehassleofswitchingcardsagain.TheCapitalOneNoHasslePlatinumcard.Lowratesthatstatlow.

29/76A.“1.You’llwanttheCapitalOneNoHasslePlatinumcard,thedifferentcreditcardwithlowrate”Thereisadifferentcreditcard,Thecreditcardiswithalowrate.B.“withoutintroductoryoffer,withoutexpiryrate”Theothercreditcardsarewithintroductoryofferandexpiryrate.C.“knowingyou’vegottheflatrate”ThereisaflatrateD.“won’thavethehassleofswitchingcardsagain”Youhadthehassleofswitchingcardsinthepast.30/76HaveyourfortunetoldforTheYearofTheRooster.RedeemanexclusivefortuneGuide.Career,money,romance,health-whatdoeshaveinstoreforyou?MakLingLingandYauTinYuenhavealltheanswers,Youcanreadtheformer’sFortuneGuideTotheYearoftheRoosterinEnglishatthespecialredemptionpriceof$25,orthelatter’sspecialChineseeditionfor$8.Andyouwillalsoreceiveafreefortunatecrystalbracelet.Byfollowingtheiradvice,youcanenhanceyourgoodluckandavoidillfortuneintheyeartocome.Don’twaituntilit’stoolate!31/76A“whatdoeshaveinstoreforyou?”YouhaveafixeddestinyinB“afreefortunatecrystalbracelet(手鐲）”

ThereisacrystalbraceletthatcanbringyouluckC“youcanenhanceyourgoodluckandavoidillfortuneintheyeartocome.”ThereisgoodluckandillfortuneintheyeartocomeGoodluckcanbeenhancedIllfortunecanbeavoidedD“Don’twaituntilit’stoolate!”Youneeditsomeday.32/76Tosummarize,presuppositionsareacrucialpartofadvertisingastheycancausethereadertoconsidertheexistenceofobjects,propositions,andculturallydefinedbehavioralproperties:forexample,"Haveyouhadyourdailyvitamins?"presupposesthatyoutakeorneed"dailyvitamins",therebycreatingandperpetuatingtheideathatthebehavioroftakingvitaminsdailyispartofourculture.Similarly,"What'sgreataboutChuckWagondogfood?"(Geis1982,45)presupposesthatthereissomethinggreataboutthedogfood.33/76PresuppositionIntroductionTheoryDailyUse

AdsAnalysisPresuppositionandEntailmentTypesorTriggers34/76Presupposition:Theinformationthataspeakerassumestobealreadyknown.(TheCambridgeEncyclopaediaofLanguage,1987)

Implicitmeaningsconveyedbythespeakerthroughtheuseofparticularwords.Ex:"TheColdWarhasended"presupposesthattheexistenceoftheentitiesitrefersto,inthiscasethe"ColdWar".35/76Speakers,notsentences,havepresuppositions36/76Entailmentisnotapragmaticconcept.Itisdefinedaswhatlogicallyfollowsfromwhatisassertedintheutterance.

Sentences,notspeakers,haveentailments.37/76Example:

Susan’ssisterboughttwohouses.ThissentencepresupposesthatSusanexistsandthatshehasasister.ThissentencehastheentailmentsthatSusan’ssisterboughtsomething;nowshehas2houses,ahouse,andothersimilarlogicalconsequences.

Theentailmentsarecommunicatedwithoutbeingsaidandarenotdependentonthespeaker’sintention.38/76Presupposition:Therelationshipbetweentwopropositions.Mary’scatiscute.(p)Maryhasacat.(q)p>>q=ppresupposesqIfthespeakerdeniesthepropositionp(NOTp),thepresuppositionqdoesn’tchange.Mary’scatisn’tcute.(NOTp)Maryhasacat.(q)Notp>>q=Notppresupposesq39/76Presupposition:Constancyundernegation:Thepresuppositionofastatementwillremaintrueevenwhenthatstatementisnegated.40/76Presupposition:Otherexamplesofconstancyundernegation:p:DaveisangrybecauseJimcrashedthecar.q:Jimcrashedthecarp>>qNOTp:Daveisn’tangrybecauseJimcrashedthecarq:JimcrashedthecarNOTp>>q41/76Presupposition:p:Mr.Singletonhasresumedhishabitofdrinkingstoutq:Mr.Singletonhadahabitofdrinkingstout.p>>qNOTp:Mr.Singletonhasn’tresumedhishabitofdrinkingstoutq:Mr.Singletonhadahabitofdrinkingstout.NOTp>>q42/76Entailmentsentencesthatstandinanimplicationalrelation,wherethetruthofthefirstguaranteesthetruthofthesecond.Theanarchistassassinatedtheemperor.Theemperordied.So,thefirstsentenceentailsthesecond.43/76A:Everyonepassedtheexamination.B:No-onefailedtheexamination.AentailsB

wheneverAistrue,BistruetheinformationthatBcontainsiscontainedintheinformationthatAconveysasituationdescribablebyAmustalsobeasituationdescribablebyBAandNOTBarecontradictory.44/76Wetakeentailmentrelationstobethosethatspecificallyarisefromlinguisticstructure45/76Generallyspeaking,entailmentisnotapragmaticconcept(i.e.havingtodowiththespeakermeaning),butitisconsideredapurelylogicalconcept.46/76Presuppositionsvs.entailmentsUtterancesandtheir

presuppositions.1)Shehasstoppedsmoking.presupposesSheusedtosmoke.2)Mydogatemybag.presupposesIhaveadog,andIhave(had)abag.Utterancesandtheir

entailments.Theemperorwasassassinated

entails1)Someonewasassassinated.2)Theemperordied.47/76Presuppositionsaredifferentfromentailments.1)

Shehasn’tstoppedsmoking.StillpresupposesSheusedtosmoke.2)Mydogdidn’teatmybag.StillpresupposesIhaveadog,andI(still,itseems)haveabag.

whileTheemperorwasn’tassassinated.Doesnotentailanymore1)Someonewasassassinated.2)Theemperordied.48/76PresuppositionIntroductionTheoryDailyUse

AdsAnalysisPresuppositionandEntailmentTypesorTriggers49/76TypesofPresuppositionPresuppositionsareassociatedwiththeuseofalargenumberofwords,phrasesandstructures.

Theselinguisticformsareconsideredasindicatorsofpotentialpresupposition,whichcanonlybecomeactualpresuppositionincontextswithspeakers.50/761-Existentialpresupposition:Entitiesnamedbythespeakerandassumedtobepresent-nounphrase.-possessiveconstructions“David’scarisnew”wecanpresupposethatDavidexistsandthathehasacar.Somelexicaltriggers:Definitenounphrases:Thestudentfellasleep.Thestudentdidn’tfallasleepDavidisabachelor(Davidisanunmarriedmaleperson)51/762-Factivepresupposition:identifiedbythepresenceofsomeverbssuchas"know“,"realize“,“beglad”,“besorry”,etc.Somelexicaltriggers:Factiveverbs:TracyrealizedPatateasandwich.Patregrettedeatingasandwich.Patlikedeatingasandwich.IwasawareoftheclasscancellationonMondayTheyannouncedthewinnerofthecontest.I’mgladit’sover.Shedidn’trealizethatshewasill.52/763-Lexicalpresupposition:Inusingoneword,thespeakercanactasifanothermeaningwillbeunderstood.Forinstance:Marystoppedrunning.(>>Heusedtorun.)

Youarelateagain.(>>Youwerelatebefore.)Areyoustillsuchabaddriver?(>>Youwereabaddriver)"stop“,"again““still”aretakentopresupposeanother(unstated)concept.Somelexicaltriggers:Changeofstateverbs:Patstoppedeatingasandwich(at2pm).Patstartedeatingasandwich(at2pm).Verbsofjudgment:TracyblamedPatforeatingthesandwich.TracyfaultsPatforeatingthesandwich.SusanisaccusedofX(Xisbad)SusanwascriticizedforX(XisbadandSusandidX)53/764-Structuralpresupposition:itistheassumptionassociatedwiththeuseofcertainstructures.-wh-questionconstructions.WhendidshetraveltotheUSA?(>>shetravelled)

Wheredidyoubuythebook?(>>youboughtthebook)

Thelistenerperceivesthattheinformationpresentedisnecessarilytrue,orintendedastruebythespeaker..54/765-Non-factivepresupposition:itisanassumptionreferredtosomethingthatisnottrue.Forexample,verbslike"dream","imagine"and"pretend"areusedwiththepresuppositionthatwhatfollowsisnottrue.IdreamedthatIwasrich.(>>Iwasnotrich)

WeimaginedthatwewereinLondon.(>>WewerenotinLondon)55/766-Counterfactualpresupposition:itistheassumptionthatwhatispresupposedisnotonlyuntrue,butistheoppositeofwhatistrue,orcontrarytofacts.conditionalstructures,Ifyouweremydaughter,Iwouldnotallowyoutodothis.(>>youarenotmydaughter)IfIwererichIwouldbuyaFerrari(>>I’mnotrich)56/76It-cleftconstruction/cleftsentences: a)ItwasTOMthatdidthework.

b)Itwasn’tMEwhotookyourjacket.57/76Cleftsentencesareusedtohelpusfocusonaparticularpartofthesentenceandtoemphasisewhatwewanttosay…Becausetherearetwoparts…theyarecalledcleft(fromtheverbcleave)whichmeansdividedintotwo.Cleftsentencesareparticularlyusefulinwritingwherewecannotuseintonationforpurposesoffocusoremphasis,buttheyarealsofrequentlyusedinspeech.

Cleftstructuresincludethereasonwhy,thethingthat,theperson/peoplewho,theplacewhere,thedaywhenandwhat-clauseswhichareusuallylinkedtotheclausethatwewanttofocusonwithisorwas.From:BBCWorldservice58/76From"BarclaysWorldwide“,afour-monthlynewsletterforclientsofBarclaysbankwholiveoutsidetheUK.

1998summer-issue,apassageabouttheintroductionoftheEuro,titled"EuroUpdate-Yourquestionsanswered".

Britainmayjoininthelifetimeofafutureparliament

theUKhasnotjoinedsofar

acarefully-expressedappreciationofthevalueofsterling

59/76TheCharacteristicsofPragmaticPresuppositionone-sidedness,subjectivenessandsneakiness(陳新仁,1998).Allthesepropertiesmakepresuppositionsubjective,sneaky,deceptiveandmisleading.60/76FelicityInthiscondition,felicitycanalsoberefereedasappropriateness.Pragmaticpresuppositionisoftenregardedasconditionsforthefelicitoususeofsentencestoperformaspeechact.“AnutteranceApragmaticallypresupposesapropositionBifAisappropriateonlyBismutuallyknownbyparticipants”(Levinson:1983).61/76Thatpersonisnotabachelor--何自然(:113-4)(1)Heismarried.(2)He’sonlysixyearsold.(3)Thepersonisawoman.(4)Thepersonisawoman,whoismarried.(5)Thepersonisaspinster.Theaboveexampleshowsthatpresuppositionmustbeappropriatetothecontextsoastoguaranteethemeaningfulnessoftheutterance.62/76Mutualknowledge“AnutteranceApragmaticallypresupposesapropositionBifAisappropriateonlyifBismutuallyknownbyparticipants”.Canyouclosethewindow?Presuppositionshouldbecommonlyknownoracceptedinformationfortheparticipantsofcommunication,otherwisethehearerwillmisunderstandthespeaker’sutterance.

63/76One-sidednessThisreferstothefactthatthepresuppositionismadeonlybytheaddresser

himselfandthatitexistsonlyinthemindoftheaddresserhimselfbeforethepresuppositionisinterpretedorinferredbytheaddressee.Mutual

knowledge

relatestoutteranceunderstandingwhileone-sidednessrelatestopragmaticpresuppositionitself.

64/76SubjectivenessPragmaticpresuppositionissubjective.Itisakindofcontextassumptionwithanassertivefeature.Itisnotnecessarytrueorcorrect.Pragmaticpresuppositionisdefinedasthebelieforattitudeofthespeakerorhearerconcerningthetruthofaproposition.Itisnotaninevitabletruthbutanassumptionaboutthecontext.

65/76SneakinessPragmaticpresuppositioniscloselyconnectedwiththespeaker'sbelief,attitudeandintention.Inaddition,itcomesfrompeople'sknowledgeabouttheway,inwhichlanguageusersconventionallyinterpretthewordsandstructuresthattriggerit,sopresuppositionisconcealedinaconversationandcanbequite“sneaky”.

Doyoustillbeatyourwife?66/76AnalysisofadvertisementWe

can't

keep

something

this

juicy

a

secret

(Juicy,from

http://www.S.htm).67/76Thisadvertisementcanleaveaverydeepimpressiononthereaders.

Theexistentialpresuppositionistriggeredbythedemonstrativepronoun“this”,whichpresupposesthatthereissomething“thisjuicy”,andthenmakesanassertionaboutit.Oneimportantfunctionofthepresuppositionhereistopromoteakind