LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY CAUSES &CONSEQUENCES生物多樣性損失的原因及后果

EffectsofreclamationoncoastalandmarineecosystemsinBahrain:

Theneedforstrategicenvironmentalassessment(SEA)Dr.HumoodNaserDepartmentofBiologyCollegeofScienceUniversityofBahrain1Inthepastfewdecades,Bahrainhaswitnessedmajoreconomic,socialandindustrialchangesaccompaniedwithseveralhuman-inducedstressescontributingtoenvironmentaldegradationsuchasreclamationanddredging,oilspills,sewageandindustrialeffluents.2

Notably,theincreasingrateoflandreclamationhascontributedsignificantlytothedeteriorationofmarineecosystems.34October2002May20215May2004September20216Presently,reclamationactivitieshaveresultedinadding>91km2representinganincreaseof12%ofthetotallandarea.7BahrainNationalLandUseStrategy2030recognizesreclamationasthemajoroptionforsecuringthefutureneedsforland,indicatingthatcoastalenvironmentwillcontinuetobethemajorfocusfordevelopmentalprojectsinthecomingfuture.8BahrainNationalLand

UseStrategy20309EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)inBahrainwasformallyintroducedin1998asatooltobringenvironmentalconcernsintotheBahrainidecision-makingprocess.However,itneglectscumulativeimpactsandprojectalternatives,andlacksprovisionsforStrategicEnvironmentalAssessment(SEA).10ImpactsofreclamationonmarineenvironmentThemassivereclamationanddredgingactivitiesinthemarineenvironmentofBahrainaredirectlyandindirectlyaffectingseagrassbedsandtheirassociatedbiota.Reclamationmayresultindisappearanceofseagrassbedsfromcoastalareasmainlyduetophysicalremoval,burial,andtheincreaseinturbiditylevels11ImpactsofreclamationonmarineenvironmentForinstance,alossof10.2km2ofseagrassbedsontheeastcoastofBahrainwasdetectedbyremotesensingimagerybetweentheperiodof1985and1992(Zainaletal.,1993)Thislosswasmainlyattributedtodredgingandreclamationactivities.12ImpactsofreclamationonmarineenvironmentCoralsinBahrainliketherestintheArabianGulfhavebeenseverelyaffectedbyhumanimpacts,includingsedimentrunofffromdredgingandreclamationactivitiesandcoralbleachingevents.13ImpactsofreclamationonmarineenvironmentAlossof2.2km2ofcoralswasrecordedinFashtAl-adhm(thelargestreefinBahrain)betweentheperiodof1985and1992asaresultofincreasingsedimentationandpollution(Zainaletal.,1993).Currently,aproposednewcauseway(ca.40km)linkingBahrainandQatarissettobebuiltonthisreef.14ImpactsofreclamationonmarineenvironmentMangrovesinBahrain,Avicenniamarina,arecontinuouslysubjectedtohumaninducedimpacts,includingreclamationanddredging.Duetocoastaldevelopment,thecurrentestimatedtotalareaoftheremainingmangrovesinBahrainisabout1km2.15ImpactsofreclamationonmarineenvironmentTherapidreclamationactivitieshaveresultedinalossofmanyprimemudflatsthatsupportshorebirdpopulations16ImpactsofreclamationonmarineenvironmentMarineprotectedareasareinfluencedbydredgingandreclamationactivitieseitherbydirectremovalorduetotheincreasinglevelsofsedimentation.Forexample,themarineareaofTubliBay,whichhoststhelaststandingmangroves,hasdecreasedfromto25to12km2in2021.17CurrentPracticeofEIAPlanningandimplementingofreclamationanddredgingaretypicallycarriedoutinBahrainonacase-by-casebasis,withoutassessingenvironmentalimpactsstrategically.Generally,acertaindevelopmentalprojectisnotenvironmentallyevaluatedinrelationtoothersimilarexistingorplanneddevelopments.18EvolutionofEIAreportsTwentyBahrainiEIAreportsrelatedtomajorhousing,recreational,financialinvestment,andcausewayprojectsthatassociatedwithintensivereclamationanddredgingweresystematicallyreviewed.19EvolutionofEIAreportsAreappropriatealternativesconsidered?Arecumulativeeffectsaddresseddirectlyinthereport?Areanyotherexistingorplanneddevelopmentswithwhichtheprojectcouldhavecumulativeeffectsidentified?Arecumulativeeffectsontheenvironmentofftheprojecttogetherwithotherexistingorplanneddevelopmentsinthelocalitydescribed?20EvolutionofEIAreportsInvestigatingfeasiblealternativeswasfoundlackinginthereviewedBahrainiEIAreportsasmostofprojectswereinthelatestagesinplanningandimplementation21EvolutionofEIAreportsThereviewedBahrainiEIAreportssufferedfromshortcomingsrelatedtocumulativeimpactsanalyses.Althoughseveralprojectswerecarriedoutatthesametime,thecumulativeimpactsthatmayresultfromtheseprojectswerecompletelyneglectedintheconcernedEIAreports.22EvolutionofEIAreportsEvidenceisincreasingthatmostadverseenvironmentaleffectsmayresultnotfromthedirecteffectsofaparticularproject,butfromthecombinationandinteractionofindividuallyminoreffectsofmultipleprojectsovertime.23RoleofSEAStrategicEnvironmentalAssessment(SEA)isrecognizedasanimportantdecisionsupporttoolforintegratingenvironmentalconcernsalongwithsocialandeconomicconsiderationsintoproposedpolicies,plansandprogrammes.24RoleofSEASEAprovidesaframeworkforaddressingindividualprojects,plansandprogrammesincoherentwithenvironmental,socialandeconomicconditions.SEAcontributestotheintegrationofenvironmentalconcernswithbroaderdevelopmentobjectives.25SEAandEIAintheplanningprocess:Policy

PlansProgramsProjectsSEAEIA26RoleofSEASEAfacilitatesearlyidentificationofpotentialimpactsandcumulativeeffects.SEAalsoallowforamorecomprehensiveapproachinconsideringalternativesforprojects,andimplementingeffectivelymitigationandcompensationmeasures.27RoleofSEAGlobally,effectivenessofcoastalplanninghasoftenbeenrestrictedbythelackofinstitutionalcoordination.SEAhastheadvantagesofintegratingthecoastalconcernsintoplanningpolicies,facilitatingconsultationbetweenvariousorganizationsaswellasthepubl