新編簡明英語語言學教程筆記

生命是永恒不斷的創(chuàng)建，因為在它內(nèi)部蘊含著過剩的精力，它不斷流溢，越出時

間和空間的界限，它不停地追求，以形形色色的自我表現(xiàn)的形式表現(xiàn)出來。

---泰戈爾

ChapteroneIntroduction

一、定義

1.語言學Linguistics

Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.

2.一般語言學GeneralLinguistics

ThestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledGenerallinguistics.

3語言language

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

語言是人類用來交際的隨意性的有聲符號體系。

4.識別特征DesignFeatures

Itreferstothedefiningpopertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemof

communication.

語言識別特征是指人類語言區(qū)分與其他任何動物的交際體系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness隨意性

Productivity多產(chǎn)性

Duality雙重性

Displacement移位性

Culturaltransmission文化傳遞

(Darbitrariness

Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.

P.Sthearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossiblefor

languagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions

⑵Productivity

Animalsarequitelimitedinthemessagestheyareabletosend.

⑶Duality

Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.

(4)Displacement

Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.

(5)Culturaltransmission

Humancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,butwehavetobetaughtandlearnedthedetails

ofanylanguagesystem,thisshowedthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted,notbyinstinct,

animalsarebornwiththecapacitytoproducethesetofcallspeculiartotheirspecies.

5.語言實力Competence

Competenceistheidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.

6.語言運用performance

Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.

語言運用是所駕馭的規(guī)則在語言交際中的體現(xiàn)。

7.歷時語言學Diachroniclinguistics

Thestudyoflanguagechangethroughtime,adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy,

whichstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.

8.共時語言學Synchronicallinguistics

Thestudyofagivenlanguageatagiventime.

9.語言langue

Theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity.

10.言語parole

Therealizationoflangueinactualuse.

11.規(guī)定性Prescriptive

Itaimstolaydownrulesfor“correct”behavior,totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhat

shouldnotsay.

12.描述性Descriptive

Alinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.

二、學問點

1.languageisnotanisolatedphenomenon,it'sasocialactivitycarriedoutinacertainsocial

environmentbyhumanbeings.

語言不是一種孤立的現(xiàn)象，而是人類在確定的社會環(huán)境下進行的一種社會活動。

2.幾種觀點和現(xiàn)象的提出者：

⑴瑞士語言學家F.deSaussureEdeSaussure:Langue和parole的區(qū)分

⑵U.S.AlinguistN.Chomsky美國語言學家N.Chomsky

in1950針對Saussure?slangue&parole提出Competence和performance

⑶曾經(jīng)對語言概念下過定義的語言學家

Sapir---languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicationideas,emotions

anddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.

Hall——languageistheinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherby

meansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.

Chomsky--fromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthand

constructedoutofafinitesetofelements.

(4)U.S.ALinguistCharlesHockett美國語言學家CharlesHockett

提出了語言的識別特征designfeatures

3.theword9language9precededbythezero-article,itimpliesthatlinguisticsstudiesnotany

particularlanguage.

Language一詞前不加冠詞說明語言學家不只探討一種特定的語言。

4.inordertodiscoverthenatureoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,whatthelinguistshastodo

firstiftostudylanguagefacts.

5.languageisacomplicatedentitywithmultiplelayersandfacts,soit'shardlypossibleforthe

linguisticstodealwithitallatonce.推斷題

6.Fristdrewtheattentionofthelinguistswerethesoundsusedinlanguages.最先弓|起語言學家留

意的是語言的發(fā)音。

三、問答題

l.whataremajorbranchesoflinguistics?whatdoeseachstudy?

Phonetics----it'sdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage,it'sconcernedwithallthe

soundsthatoccurintheworld'slanguages.

Phonology-thestudyofsoundssystems—theinventoryofdistinctivesoundsthatoccurina

languageandthepatternsintowhichtheyfall.

Morphology--It'sabranchofagrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandthe

rulesbywhichwordsareformed.

Syntax-------it*sasubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureofalanguage.

Semantics-It'ssimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginabstraction.

Pragmaticsthestudyofmeaningincontextofwords.

Sociolinguistics-thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety.

Psycholinguistics---thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofthemind.

Appliedlinguistics---theapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingand

learning.

2.whydowesaylanguageisarbitrary?

Languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenthesoundsthat

peopleuseandtheobjectstowhichthesesoundsrefer.

Thefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforthesameobjectisagoodillustrationof

thearbitrarynatureoflanguage,it'sonlyourtacitagreementofutteranceandconceptatworkand

notanyinnaterelationshipboundupintheutterance.

Atypicalexampletoillustratethe'arbitrariness'oflanguageis'arosebyanyothernamewould

smellassweet'.

3.whatmakesmodemlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?

Modernlinguisticsisdescriptive,itsinvestigationsarebasedonauthenticandmainlyspoken

languagedate.現(xiàn)代語言學是描述性的，其探討以的確牢靠的、主要以口語形式的資料為基礎。

traditionalgrammarisprescriptive,itisbasedon,high'writtenlanguage.

傳統(tǒng)語法是規(guī)定性的，探討‘高級'書面語。

4.1smodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?why

Modernlinguisticsismainlysynchronic,focusingonthepresent-daylanguage,unlessthevarious

statesofalanguagearesuccessfullystudied,itwillnotbepossibletodescribelanguagefroma

diachronicpointofview.

現(xiàn)代語言學主要是共時性的，重點探討現(xiàn)代語言。除非對語言的各種狀態(tài)都進行成功的探討，

否則很難從歷時性角度對語言進行描述。

5.whichenjoyspriorityinmodernlinguistics,speechorwritings?

Speechenjoysforthefollowingreasons:

(DSpeechprecedeswritingintermsofevolution.

(2)Alargeamountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechthaninwriting.

(3)speechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage.

6.howisSaussure5sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky's?

BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandthe

actualuseoflanguage,theirpurposeistosingleoutthelanguagesystemforseriousstudy

TwolinguistsideadifferinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguage,Chomskylooksat

languagefromapsychologicalpointofview,competenceisapropertyofthemindofeach

individual.

6.thedistinctionbetweenlangueandparole?

(Dlangueisabstract,relativelystable(2)paroleisconcrete,variesfrompersontoperson,from

situationtosituation.

1/Whatislinguistics?

什么是語言學？

Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticular

language,butlanguagesingeneral.

2/Thescopeoflinguistics

語言學的探討范疇

Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.（一般語言學）

Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalledphonetics.（語音學）

Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.（音系

學）

Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalledmorphology.

（形態(tài)學）

Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax（句法

學）

Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.（語義學）

Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.（語用學）

Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsocio-linguistics.（社會語言學）

Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.（心理

語言學）

Thestudyofapplications（astherecoveryofspeechability）isgenerallyknownasapplied

linguistics.（應用語言學）Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationof

linguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingof

foreignandsecondlanguage.

Otherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics,（人類語言學）neurological

linguistics,（神經(jīng)語言學）mathematicallinguistics,（數(shù)字語言學）andcomputational

linguistics.（計算機語言學）

3/Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics

語言學探討中的幾對基本概念

Prescriptiveanddescriptive規(guī)定與描寫

Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobe

descriptive,ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshould

notsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.

Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhile

modernlinguisticsisdescriptive.Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeople

actuallyuse,whetheritis“correct“ornot.

Synchronicanddiachronic共時和歷時

Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofa

languageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudy

ismoreimportant.

Speechandwriting口頭語與書面語

Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthe

spokenformoflanguageasprimary,butnotthewrittenform.Reasonsare:1.Speechprecedes

writing;2.Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform;3.Intermsoffunction,

thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalarger

loadofcommunicationthanthewritten.

Langueandparole語言和言語

TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20th

century.

Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,

andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninorder

tosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoisto

abstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageand

makethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.

Competenceandperformance語言實力和語言運用

ProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950,s.

Hedefinescompetenceastheidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,and

performancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthe

taskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerules.

ChapterTwoPhonology

一、定義

1.寬式音標Broadtranscription

Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithlettersymbolsonly.

2.窄式音標Narrowtranscription

Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundwithletterssymbolsandthediacritics.

3.清音Voiceless

WhenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapartJettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,the

soundsproducedinsuchaconditionarecalledvoicelesssounds.

4.濁音Voicing

Soundsproducedwhilethevocalcordsarevibratingarecalledvoicedsounds.

5.元音Vowel

Thesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstream

passesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledvowels.

6.輔音Consonants

Thesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthe

vocaltractarecalledconsonants.

7.音位Phoneme

Thebasicunitinphonology,ifsacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.

8.音位變體Allophones

Differentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentenvironmentsarecalledthe

allophonesofthatphoneme.

9.音素phone

Aphoneticunitorsegment.itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,it'saspeechsoundweuse

whenspeakingalanguage.

10.最小對立對Minimalpair

Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccurs

inthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.

11.超切分特征Suprasegmental

Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentarecalledsuprasegmental

features,themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestressintonationandtone.

12.互補分布complementarydistributionP35

Twoallophonesofthesamephonemearesaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.

13.語言的語音媒介Phonicmediumoflanguage

Thelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinterest

tolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage.

在人類交際中有著確定意義、對語言學探討來說舉足輕重。有限的聲音是語音媒介。

14.爆破音stops

Whenaobstructioncreatedbythespeechorgansistotalorcomplete,thespeechsoundproduced

withtheobstructionreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainiscalledastoporaplosive.

theyare[b][p][t][d][k][g]

二、學問點

1.statisticsresultingfromcarefulinvestigationsshowthattherehavebeenover5,0001anguagesin

theworld,abouttwothirdsofwhichhavenothadwrittenform.

2.ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.

3.Phonetic組成

(DArticuIaloryphonetics發(fā)音語音學longestestablished,mostlydeveloped

(2)Auditoryphonetics聽覺語音學

(3)Acousticphonetics聲學語音學

4.articulatoryApparatus/OrgansofSpeech

Pharyngealcavity-咽腔

Oral...-口腔greatestsourceofmodificationofairstreamfoundhere

Nasal???-鼻腔

5.Thetongueisthemostflexible,responsibleformorevarietiesofarticulationthananyother,the

extremebackofthetonguecanberaisedtowardstheuvulaandaspeechsoundcanbethus

producedasisusedinArabicandFrench.

6.Obstructionbetweenthebackofthetongueandthevelararearesultsinthepronunciationof[k]

and[g],thenarrowingofspacebetweenthehardpalateandthefrontofthelongueleadstothe

sound|j];theobstructioncreatedbetweenthetipofthetongueandthealveolarridgeresultsinthe

sounds[t]and[d].

7.nasalconsonants:[m]/[n]/[r]]

9.APhoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.

lO.Sequentialrules例子

Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshould

obeythefollowingthreerules:

(Dthefirstphonememustbe/s/

(2)thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/

(3)thethirdphonememustbe/I/or/r/or/w

11.Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:Fallingtone;Risingtone;Fall-risetone;Rise-falltone

三、問答題

l.whatarethethreebranchesofphonetics?howdotheycontributetothestudyofspeechsound?

Articulatory-describesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhow

theydiffer.

Auditory—studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,reachestheimportantconclusionthat

phoneticidentityisonlyatheoreticalideal.

Acoustic—studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,thewaysoundtravelfromthespeaker

tothehearer.

發(fā)音語音學描述了我們的發(fā)音器官如何發(fā)出語音，以及這些語音為何有所不同。

聽覺語音學探討語音的物理性質(zhì)，得出了重要結(jié)論，即語音同一只是理論上的志向。

聲學語音學探討語音的物理性質(zhì)，探討語音從說話者到聽話者之間的傳播方式。

2.howaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?

ByplaceofarticulationandBymannerofarticulation

3.howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?whodoyouthinkwillbemore

interestedinthedifferentbetweensay[i]and[i],[p]and[ph],aphoneticianoraphilologist?why?

語音學和音位學的探討中心有何不同?語音學家和音位學家哪一個更關切清晰音的區(qū)分?為

什么？

Phonetics-descriptionofallspeechsoundsandtheirfinddifferences.

Phonology-descriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhowsoundsfunctionto

distinguishmeaning.

Aphoneticianwouldbemoreinterestedinsuchdifferencescossuchdifferenceswillnotcos

differencesinmeaning.

4.whafsaphone?howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?

Phone—aspeechsound,aphoneticunit.

Phoneme---acollectionofabstractsoundfeatures,aphonologicalunit.

Allophones-actualrealizationofaphonemeindifferentphoneticcontexts.

5.whatisaminimalpairandaminimalset?whyisitimportanttoidentifytheminimalsetina

language?為什么區(qū)分最小對立組在一種語言中特殊重要？

Minimalpair-twosoundcombinationsidenticalineverywayexceptinonesoundelementthat

occursinthesameposition.

除了出現(xiàn)在同一位置的一個語音成分不同外,其他部分都一樣的兩個語音組合.

Minimalset—agroupofsoundcombinationswiththeabovefeature.

一組具有上述特征的語音組合.

Byidentifyingtheminimalpairortheminimalsetofalanguage,aphilologistcanidentifyits

phonemes.

通過分析一種語言的最小對立對或最小對立組，音位學家能辨別出它的音位.

6.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowonetranscriptiondiffer?

Broadtranscription-onelettersymbolforonesound.

Narrowtranscription-diacriticsareaddedtotheone-lettersymbolstoshowthefiner

differencesbetweensounds.

7.explainthesequentialrule,theassimilationruleandthedeletionrule.

有序規(guī)則Sequentialrules

Rulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.

同化規(guī)則Assimilationrules

Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby'copying'afeatureofasequential

phoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.

省略規(guī)則Deletionrule

It'saphonologicalrulewhichtellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitsorthographically

represented.

ChapterThreeMorphology

一、定義

1.詞素Morpheme

Thebasicunitinthestudyofmorphologyandthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.

2.自由詞素FreeMorpheme

Freemorphemesareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves.

3.黏著詞素Boundmorphemes

Boundmorphemesarethesemorphemesthatcanotbeusedbythemselves,mustbecombined

withothermorphemestoformwordsthatcanbeusedindependently.

4.詞根Root

Rootisthebaseformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.

5.詞綴Affix

Thecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanother

morpheme.

6.曲折詞綴inflectionalaffixes

Themanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,such

asnumber,tense,degreeandcase.

7.沙氏生詞綴Derivationalaffixes

Themanifestationofrelationbetweenstemsandaffixesthroughtheadditionofderivational

affixes.

8.詞干Stem

Astemistheexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded,astemcanbeabound

root,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.

9.形態(tài)學規(guī)則Morphologicalrules

Theyarerulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformanewword.

10.前綴Prefix

Prefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,bulusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechofthe

originalword,exceptionsaretheprefixes'be-'and'en(m)-6

11.后綴Suffix

Suffixesareaddedtotheendofstems,theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandin

manycaseschangeitspartofspeech.3.Inusingthemorphologicalrules,wemustguardagainst

Over-generalization.

二、學問點

Inflectionalmorphology

1.Morphology

Derivationalmorphology

Freemoiphemes

MorphemesRoot

BoundmorphemesInflectionalaffixes

Affixes

Prefix

Derivationalaffixes

2.somewordsmaybesaidtocontainarootmorpheme.Suffix

4.Compoundfeatures:

(1)orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasoneword,twoseparatewordswithorwithouta

hypheninbetween.

(2)Syntactically,thepartofspeechofacompoundisdeterminedbythelastelement.

(3)semantically,themeaningofacompoundisidiomatic,notcalculablefromthemeaningsofall

itscomponent

ChapterFourSyntax

一、定義

1.句子sentence

Astructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacomplete

statement,questionorcommand.

2.語言運用Linguisticcompetence

Thesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeaker.

3.謂語Predicate

Thepartofasentencewhichcomprisesafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsayssomething

aboutthesubjectisgrammaticallycalledpredicate.

4.定式子句FiniteClause

Aclausethattakesasubjectandafiniteverb,andatthesametimestandsstructurallyalone.

5.從屬子句EmbeddedClause(EC)

Inacompletesentence,theincorporatedorsubordinateclauseisnormallycalledanEC.

6.主要子句MatrixClause

Inacomplexedsentence,theclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledamatrixclause.

7層次結(jié)構(gòu)Hierarchicalstructure

Thesentencestructurethatgroupswordsintostructuralconstituentsandshowsthesyntactic

categoriesofeachstructuralconstituent,suchasNPandVP.

8.語法關系Grammaticalrelations

Thestructuralandlogicalfunctionalrelationsbetweeneverynounphraseandsentence.

9.句法類型Syntacticcategory

Awordorphrasethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunctionsuchasthesubjectorobject.

10.表層結(jié)構(gòu)S-structure

Alevelofsyntacticrepresentationaftertheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement.

11.深層結(jié)構(gòu)D-structure

Alevelofsyntacticrepresentationbeforetheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement.

12.普遍語法Generalgrammar

Asystemoflinguisticknowledgewhichconsistsofsomegeneralprinciplesandparametersabout

naturelanguage.

13.移動Q規(guī)則Movea

Ageneralmovementruleaccountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.

14.句法移位Syntacticmovement

Syntacticmovementoccurswhenaconstituentmovesoutofitsoriginalplacetoanewposition.

15.轉(zhuǎn)換原則Transformationrules

Syntacticmovementisdictatedbyrulestraditionallycalledtransformationalrules,whose

operationmaychangethesyntacticrepresentationofasentence.

16.X標桿理論X-bartheory

Ageneralandhighlyabstractschemathatcollapsesallphrasesstructurerulesintoasingle

format:X"-*(Spec)X(CompI).

一種泛指的、高度抽象的圖示，它把全部的詞組結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則概括為一種程式

X”f(Spec)X(Compl)

a:X"b:X"SpecX5

SpecX'X'Xcompl

Xcomplement

NP'thestudentwholikeslinguisticsJconsistsofDet,NandSwithDetbeingtheSpecifier,N

thehead,Sthecomplement.NP(…)有冠詞、名詞和子句組成，冠詞是指示語，名詞是核心詞，

子句是補足語。

二、學問點

1.syntax這個單詞源于Greek,本義是arrangement.

2.我們把syntax的學習看作asystemofrulesthatgoverntheformationofgrammatical

sentence.

3.Amajorgoaloflinguisticsistoshowwithaconsistentandexplicitgrammaticaltheoryhow

syntacticrulesaccountforthisgrammaticalknowledge.

4.推斷題：thesyntacticrulesofanylanguagearefiniteinnumber,andyetthereisnolimittothe

numberofsentencesnativespeakersofthatlanguageareabletoproduceandcomprehend.

5.推斷題:Afiniteverb,informallycalledthemainverbofasentence,expressesexistence,action

oroccurrencewhichislimitedbyperson,number,tenseandmood.

一個限定動詞被非正式稱為句中主要動詞，表達了人稱、數(shù)、時態(tài)、語氣限定的存在、行動

或事務。

6.句子的分類simplesentence

Typesofsentencescoordinateorcompoundsentence

Complexsentence

簡潔句一Itconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneas

itsownsentence.

并歹！J句合成句-Itcontainstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,

suchas"but","and”.ect.

復合句一Itcontainstwoormoreclauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.

復合句的特點：

(DAnembeddedclausefunctionsasagrammaticalunitinitsmatrixclause

(2)MostembeddedclausesrequireanintroductorywordcalledaSubordinator,suchas“that”

(3)Anembeddedclausemaynotfunctionasagrammaticallywell-formedsentenceifitstands

independentlyasasimplesentenceunlessitsformchanges.

子句是一個語法單位，大部分子句要帶一個被稱為從屬連詞的引導詞，假如子句作為秒年

第秒年句單獨存在，它可能不是一個合乎規(guī)范的句子，除非變更他的形式。

7.whenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafter

anotherinasequence.

8.Thehierarchicalnatureofsentencestructure句子結(jié)構(gòu)層次特點

sentencesareorganizedwithwordsofthesamesyntacticcategory,suchasnounphraseNPor

verbphraseVP,groupedtogether.

9.ThepointsatwhichthetreebrachesatvariouslevelsarecalledBranchingnodes分叉點

lO.Inadditiontotheuseofstructuraltreediagrams,linguistsmayshowthehierarchicalstructure

ofsentencesbyusingbracketsandsubscriptlabels.

11.句法類型

Major…主要詞類open,canaddnewwords

Lexicalcategory名、動、形、副詞N,V,Adj,Adv

SyntacticMinor***次要詞類close,wordsarefixed

Categories限定、助動、介、代、連、嘆Del,Aiix,Prep,Pron,Conj,Int

Phrasalcategory

Apartfromsentencesandclauses,asyntacticcategoryusuallyreferstoaword(calledalexical

category)oraphrase(calledphrasalcategory)thatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunction,

suchasthesubjectinasentence.

12.短語類型

NounPhraseNP

PhrasalVerbPhraseVP

CategoriesPrepositionPhrasePP

AdjectivePhraseAP

13.Thegrammaticalrelationsofasentenceconcernthewayeachmounphraseinthesentence

relatestotheverb,inmanycases,grammaticalrelationsrefervirtuallyto'who'

does'what'to'whom'.

14.weusuallyrefertothegrammaticalrelationsassubjectofanddirectobjectof.

15.Combinationalrulesmustbesmallinnumbersoasnottocreateextraburdensonthehuman

memory,alsotheserulesmustbepowerfulenoughtoyieldallthepossiblesentences,andruleout

theimpossibleones

組合規(guī)則確定不能太多，以免給人的記憶帶來過多的負擔，用這些規(guī)則必需能組合出全部可

能的句子，而解除不行能的句子。

16.rulesangenerateaninfinitenumberofsentences,andsentenceswithinfinitelength,dueto

theirrecursiveproperties.Itcapturestheabilityoflanguagetogeneratemoreconstituentstoa

sentenceandenablesspeakerstorepeatsyntacticconstituentswithinthesamesentence.

循環(huán)性體現(xiàn)了語言中的句子能有更多的成分，使說話者能在同一句子中重復一些句法成分。

17.移位類型

SyntacticNP-movement=t,sinvolvingthemovementofanounphrase.

Movement名詞短語的移位

WH-movement=Itchangesasentencefromaffirmativetointerrogative.

陳述變疑問句

AUX-...=themovementofanauxiliaryverbtothesentenceinitialposition.

助動詞移位到句首的移位

18.普遍語法的廣義原則

GeneralPrinciplesofUniversalGrammar:CaseCondition和AdjacencyCondition

格條件-anounphrasemusthaveCaseandCaseisassignedbyVorPtotheobjectposition,or

byAUXtothesubjectposition.

名詞詞組必需有格，賓語的格是由動詞或介詞確定，而主語的格由助動詞確定。

相令B條件——acaseassignorandaCaserecipientshouldstayadjacenttoeachother,itexplainswhy

nootherphrasalcategorycanintervenebetweenaverbanditsdirectobject.

格分派者和格接受者要相鄰。這說明白為什么任何別的詞組類不能插到動詞和它的干脆賓語

之間。

19.UniversalGrammarisbelievedtocontainaparameterwiththevalves增and減setonthe

Adjacencycondition,withEnglish-typela