英文【世界銀行】社區(qū)驅(qū)動發(fā)展的學(xué)習(xí)議程

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PolicyResearchWorkingPaper10883

ALearningAgendaforCommunity-DrivenDevelopment

RespondingtoComplexContextual,Evaluation,andInferenceChallenges

PatrickBarron

PatriciaFernandes

StephenWinkler

MichaelWoolcock

WORLDBANKGROUP

SocialSustainabilityandInclusionGlobalPractice&DevelopmentResearchGroup

August2024

PolicyResearchWorkingPaper10883

Abstract

GovernmentsandnongovernmentalorganizationsaroundtheworldutilizeCommunity-DrivenDevelopment(CDD)approachestoaddresscomplexandoverlappingdevelopmentchallenges.DespiteconsistentevidenceonsomeimpactsofCDD—especiallyimprovementsinbasicservices—thereissignificantvariationinmostoutcomesandseveralunansweredquestions.ThispaperarguesthatthecentraltasktoadvancelearningonCDD(andsimi-larcomplexdevelopmentinterventions)isidentifyingtheconditionsunderwhichitworksandthedesignandimple-mentationchoicesthatwillmakeitmosteffectivewithinagivencontext.ThepaperprovidesanoverviewofCDD,backgroundontheexistingevidence,andidentifiesgaps

inCDD’simpactacrossfourbroadtypesofoutcomes—cohesion,inclusion,resilience,andprocesslegitimacy.ThepaperconcludesbyoutliningasetofpriorityresearchquestionsthatwilladvancelearningonCDDandprovidesguidanceontheempiricalapproachesandtoolsrequiredtoanswertheseresearchquestions.Theproposedlearn-ingagendafocusesonunderstandingvariationsinprojectdesign,implementationmodalities,andcontext,arguingthatincreasedknowledgeinthesedomainswillhelptooptimizetheimpactsofcurrentCDDprojects,informthedesignofnewprojects,anddevelopanunderstandingofwhatprojectdesignsaremostscalableindifferentcontexts.

ThispaperisaproductoftheSocialSustainabilityandInclusionGlobalPracticeandtheDevelopmentResearchGroup,DevelopmentEconomics.ItispartofalargereffortbytheWorldBanktoprovideopenaccesstoitsresearchandmakeacontributiontodevelopmentpolicydiscussionsaroundtheworld.PolicyResearchWorkingPapersarealsopostedontheWebat

/prwp

.Theauthorsmaybecontactedatpbarron@orswinkler2@.

ThePolicyResearchWorkingPaperSeriesdisseminatesthefindingsofworkinprogresstoencouragetheexchangeofideasaboutdevelopmentissues.Anobjectiveoftheseriesistogetthefindingsoutquickly,evenifthepresentationsarelessthanfullypolished.Thepaperscarrythenamesoftheauthorsandshouldbecitedaccordingly.Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedinthispaperareentirelythoseoftheauthors.TheydonotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsoftheInternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment/WorldBankanditsaffiliatedorganizations,orthoseoftheExecutiveDirectorsoftheWorldBankorthegovernmentstheyrepresent.

ProducedbytheResearchSupportTeam

ALearningAgendaforCommunity-DrivenDevelopment:

RespondingtoComplexContextual,Evaluation,andInferenceChallenges

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PatrickBarron

PatriciaFernandesStephenWinklerMichaelWoolcock

JEL:D02;D71;I31;O22

Keywords:community-drivendevelopment;evaluation;localgovernance;sustainabledevelopment;learning

1AllfindingsandinterpretationsinthispaperaresolelythoseoftheauthorsanddonotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsoftheWorldBank,itsExecutiveDirectors,orthecountriestheyrepresent.Wearegratefulforthecommentsandconstructivefeedbackprovidedby:DanielBalke,SeanBradley,BenjaminBurckhart,SunYoungChang,RobertChase,NaraeChoi,JoseCuesta,AbderrahimFraiji,JanaEl-Horr,ScottGuggenheim,TracyHart,MarcusHolmlund,SarahKeener,JohnLoeser,RobinMearns,RafiNajam,KaoriOshima,NicolasPerrin,AshutoshRaina,VijayendraRao,AudreySacks,CyrusSamii,JanmejaySingh,IfetaSmajic,VictoriaStanley,ZoeTrohanis,MakikoWatanabe,KatherineWilliams,andRobertWrobel.WealsothankLouiseCord,RichardDamania,andNikMyintfortheirguidanceandfeedbackonthepaper.Enduringerrorsoffactorinterpretationaresolelyours.Emailaddressesforcorrespondence:pbarron@andswinkler2@.

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1.Introduction:Framingdevelopmentchallenges

Countriesandcommunitiesfaceanarrayofcomplexdevelopmentchallenges.Somechallengesaretechnicallycomplex,butsolutionsarelargelyknown.

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Othercomplexdevelopmentchallenges,however,requiremultidimensional,context-specific(localized)solutionsthatarenotaseasilydesignedorimplemented(PritchettandWoolcock2004).Thisisthecaseformuchworkaimedatpromotingsociallysustainabledevelopment.

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Butpromotingchangeinsuchareas,andviaprocessesparticipantsregardaslegitimate,canbechallenging.Thetechnicalsolutionstoexclusion,socialdivisions,andalackofresilienceareoftennotclearfromtheoutsetandwillvaryfromcontexttocontext,aswillthewaysinwhichpeoplebelievechangeintheseareasshouldbepursued.Thisisthecaseforaddressingdevelopmentchallengessuchasenhancinglocaljusticeornegotiatinglanddisputes.Challengessuchaspovertyreductionalsorequiremultidimensionalsolutions,especiallywhenthecontextinvolvesissuessuchasafragilesocialcontract,ongoingconflict,andweakgovernanceinstitutions.Insuchcases,itisoftennotclearwhatisdrivingtheobservedproblems,howtheyinteractwithoneanother,whichofthemshouldbeprioritizedoverothers(andonwhatbasis),andwhattheoptimalresponsecouldorshouldbeinanygivencontext.Thesemultidimensionalchallengesareparticularlyacutein,butarenotlimitedto,areasaffectedbyfragility,conflict,and/orviolence(FCV).

GovernmentsincreasinglyuseCommunity-DrivenDevelopment(CDD)asanapproachtoaddressoverlappingdevelopmentchallengesindifficultenvironments.EarlyCDDprojectsfocusedlargelyonbuildinglocalinfrastructureandhaveevolvedinrecentyearstosupportareassuchasclimateadaptation,disasterresponse,localeconomicdevelopment,ex-combatantreintegration,andpost-conflictrecovery.Suchvariedobjectivesinevitablymeanthatthedesign,scale,andimplementationofCDDprojectsdiffer.However,acommonalityacrossCDDprojectsisthatcommunitieshavedecision-makingpoweronhowdevelopmentresourcesareidentifiedandprioritized.CDDisacommonlyusedapproachfornumerousreasons,especiallyinFCVcontexts.CDDhasshownarelativelyuniqueabilitytoresistcorruptionanddeliverbasicservices(Samii2023),likelybecauseofitsincorporationoflocalaccountabilityandtransparencymechanisms,andtherelativelywidediscretionitgrantstrustedfrontlineimplementerstocustomizeresponsestocommunityidiosyncrasies(HakimanandSheely,forthcoming;GibsonandWoolcock2008).Byandlarge,ithasproventobeaneffectivemechanismfordeliveringinfrastructureandotherpublicgoodscost-effectively.Incountrieswithlimitedstatecapacityatthenationaland/orlocallevels,CDDprojectmechanisms,includingcommunitycouncilsandnetworksoffacilitators,havedemonstratedthattheycandeliverawiderangeoftypesofdevelopmentassistance.AsgovernmentsincreasinglyadopttheCDDapproach,oftenwithWorldBankfinancing,awidersetofCommunityandLocalDevelopment(CLD)projectshaveemerged.Forexample,someoftoday’sCLDprojectsareintegratedintonationalsystemsandincludecomponentsondevolvedfinancing,localeconomic

2Inflation,forexample,isatechnicallycomplexchallenge;skilledpolicyprofessionalsmayspendentirecareerstryingtotameit,buttheirenergieswillprimarilybespenttryingtocraftandenactanintegratedmixoftechnicalsolutions,theeffectivenessofwhichwillbereadilyapparentinchangesinpricesandcarefullycalibratedindices.Theunderlyingmechanismsconnectinginflationandinterestratesarerelativelywellunderstood,suchthatraisingratesamerequarterofapointcanhavevastconsequentialeffectsonbothdomesticandforeigneconomies.Overrecentdecades,thecomplexmixoftechnicalpolicyinstrumentsdeployedbycentralbankershasbeenrefinedtothepointthatmostmiddle-andhigh-incomeeconomiesrarelyexperiencewildswingsininflation.

3Communitiesandsocietiesaremoresociallysustainablewhentheyarecohesive,resilient,wheregroupsarenotexcluded,andwheredevelopmentisdoneinwaysthatarebroadlydeemed‘processlegitimate’(Barronetal.2023).

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development,climatemitigationandadaptation,andinclusion.

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Definedwidely,CLDcurrentlyaccountsforaround10percentoftheWorldBank’sportfolio,withprojectsacrossarangeofglobalpractices.

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DespiteconsistentevidenceonsomeCDDimpacts,thereissignificantvariationinmostoutcomesandmanyunansweredquestions–especiallyregardinghowvariationinprojectdesign,implementationmodalities,andcontextualidiosyncrasiesaffectCDDoutcomes.CDDapproacheshaveastrongtrackrecordofeffectivelyimprovingbasicservices(Casey2018)andinsomecasesalsoimprovingeconomicwelfareandparticipationoutcomes.However,becauseCDDisoftenusedinresponsetocomplexmultidimensionalchallenges,andbecauseCDDprojectsenablelocaldiscretion,impacttrajectoriesovertimeareoftennon-linearandnon-uniform,andmayyieldwelcomeandunwelcomeoutcomesthatarenotmeasuredatall(Woolcock2019).Thismakesitmoredifficulttodrawconclusionsaboutthenatureandextentofprojects’effectiveness.Similarly,themechanismsthatlinkelementsofprojectdesigntodifferentoutcomes(positiveandnegativealike)areunder-theorized,asarethewaysinwhichprojectsinteractwithelementsof‘context’.

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Asaresult,therehavebeenfewempiricaltestsofthesemechanisms(AvdeenkoandGilligan2015isanotableexception).ItalsomeansthatevaluationapproachesusedtoassessmoreconventionaldevelopmentinterventionsmaynothelpusunderstandtheconditionsunderwhichCDDyieldscertainoutcomesforcertainpeopleincertaincontextsinresponsetocertainproblemsatcertainscalesofoperationwithcertainimplementationpartners.

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Thecentraltask–forCDDandsimilarlycomplexinterventions–isthusidentifyingtheconditionsunderwhichitcanwork,andthedesignandimplementationchoicesthatwillmakeitmosteffectivewithinagivencontext.Buildingontheevidencebasewecurrentlyhave,thenextstepinevaluatingandlearningfromCDDprogramsistobetterunderstandtheconditionsunderwhichtheyworkandhowwelltheyperforminspecificcontexts,inordertooptimizetheeffectivenessofexistingprojectsandsupportthedesign,implementation,andscalabilityofsubsequentones.CDDprojects’verydesigns,whichallowforhighlevelsofdiscretionfromcommunitiesandprojectstaffsuchasfacilitators,meansthatwhatresourcesareusedforandthewaysinwhichprojectprocessesareimplementedwillvaryconsiderably–betweencountries,projects,and,indeed,betweenareastargetedbyaprojectinagivencountry.ThegoalsofCDDprojectsaretypicallymultifold,aimingtocombinetheprovisionof‘hard’developmentassistance(buildinginfrastructure,etc.)witheffortstobuild–oratleastengagerespectfullywith–localinstitutionsandpromotenormsrelatedtoparticipation,inclusion,andthepeacefulmediationofdifferences.

4AsofJune2023,theWorldBankwassupporting375activeCLDprojectsin98countrieswithapproximatelyUS$45.2billioninWorldBankfundingandanadditionalUS$11billionofborrowerorotherdonorco-financing.Theportfolioincludes27ofthe37countries(73percent)ontheFY23listofFragileandConflict-AffectedSituations.

5AsofJune2023,thelargestBank-fundedCLDportfolioisinAgriculture(US$15.5billion),followedbyUrban,ResilienceandLand(US$8.2billion),andSocialSustainabilityandInclusion(US$5.8billion).ThesearefollowedbyWater(US$4.3billion),Environment(US$4.2billion),SocialProtection(US$4.1billion),andotherglobalpractices(DigitalDevelopment;Education;Finance,CompetitivenessandInnovation;Governance;HealthandNutrition;andTransport,totalingUS$2.1billion).

6Variationinhowdifferentmechanismsdriveoutcomesindifferentcontextsalsomeansthat‘lessonslearned’fromoneparticularresponsetoacomplexproblemmaytravelpoorlytoanothercontextorpopulation,evenwithinthesamecountry(Vivalt2020).

7ComplexityisnotalwaysanobstacletousingstandardevaluationapproachessuchasRCTs.Manycomplexinterventions,includingCDDprojects,havebeeneffectivelyevaluatedwithRCTs.OurpointisthatstandardevaluationapproachesalonecannotanswerallquestionsaboutCDD’simpactsacrossdifferentcontextsordesignandimplementationchoices.

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BuildingtheinstitutionsandnormsassociatedwithCDDiskeyfordevelopmentbecausetheprovisionofcashandeconomicassistancealonecannotaddressproblemsrelatedtotheunder-provisionofpublicgoodsandhowservicesareregulated.Thereisstrongpositiveevidenceontheimpactsofcashtransfers–bothunconditionalandconditional–inhelpingpeopleoutofpoverty.

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Whilecashcansupportpeople’swellbeing,boththroughitsclearutilityforindividualrecipientsandasafiscalstimulus,itcannotaddressalldevelopmentneeds.Onegapisintheprovisionofthepublicgoodsneededforpeopleandsocietiestoflourish–physicalinfrastructure,provisionofhealthandeducation,andsoon.Manyofthegoodsneededforprosperitywillnotbesuppliedbymarketswithoutstateinvestmentinpublicgoods.Asecondgapistheinstitutionsneededtoregulateandgovernlife,forexampleinwaysthatprovideforgoodssuchassecurityandjustice.Inmostcases,cashprogramsdonotstrengthenorcreatesuchlocalgoverninginstitutions.Thelogicofprovidingcashandofprovidingcommunity-leveldecisionmakingthroughCDDissimilar:thatpeopleknowbesthowtouseresourcesinwaysthatimprovetheirlives.Inthissense,cashtransfersandCDDcanbeseenascomplimentsratherthancompetitors.

Movingforward,itismostusefultouseevaluationsofCDDprojectstoasktwosetsofquestions.First,whataretherangeofoutcomesonwhichCDDprojectscanhavepositiveimpacts–beyondaccesstobasicservices,whichhasbeenwelldocumented?Suchoutcomesrelatenotjusttodirectmeasuresofpovertyreduction(suchasconsumption)butalsoothermeasuresthatareknowntohavepositiveimpactsonpovertyreduction,sometimesovertherelativelyshort-run(improvementsinpublicinfrastructure)butalsooverthelonger-run(thebuildingofgovernanceinstitutions,socialcohesion,andcollectiveactioncapacities).Second,underwhatconditionsdoCDDprojectstendtohavepositiveimpactsonsuchoutcomes?Thiswillrelatetoelementsofprojects’designsandimplementation.Itmayalsorelatetothetypesofcontexts(e.g.,FCVvs.non-FCV;urbanvs.rural;highvs.lowsocialdiversity)inwhichprojectsareimplemented.

Thislearningagendawillrequirenewwaysofevaluatingprojectsandofgeneratingknowledgefromcomparativeanalysesofimpact,bothwithinandacrossprojects.Theexistenceofsignificantvariationinoutcomesacrossprojectareasrequiresagreaterunderstandingofthewaysinwhichprojectsinteractwithlocalcontexts.

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Understandingsuchvariationrequiresagreaterfocusonthedevelopmentandtestingoftheoriesonthecausalmechanismsthatlinkprojectinterventionstodifferentoutcomes(inparticular,whenthoseoutcomesarealsoshapedbyotherfactorsoutsideofthecontrolorscopeoftheproject).Attimesthismayrequire(a)theuseofdifferentmethodologicalapproachesbeyondwhatisoftendeemed‘rigorous’(Pritchett2023),suchasrandomizedcontroltrials;(b)trackingoutcomemeasuresotherthanthosethathavetypicallybeenincludedinprojectresultsframeworksand

evaluations;and(c)focusingonlongertermsoutcomesandtheprocessesthroughwhichtheyareshaped.AkeypriorityfortheCDDlearningagendaistoimprovetheuseofapproachesthatarewell-suitedtogeneratingadditionalevidenceonCDDimpacts,includingonthevariationoftheseimpactsovertime,betweengroups,andacrossprojectdesigns,implementationmodalities,andsocialcontextsinwaysthatleadtorefinementsindesign,implementation,andscaling.Thepapersetsoutideasforwhatthislearningagendacouldlooklike.

8FiszbeinandSchady(2009)providedthefirstcomprehensivearticulationofthepositiveeffectsofconditionalcashtransfersonpovertyreduction,thoughpreciseestimatesoftheirlong-termimpactsremaindifficulttodiscern(Millánetal2019).

9Almostsixdecadesago,AlbertHirschmanarguedthatweneedtothinkabout“projectbehavior”andimpactasbeing“rootedinsuchstructuralcharacteristics[ofprojects]andintheinteractionbetweenthosecharacteristicsandsocietyatlarge”(Hirschman1967,p.4).

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TheobjectivesofthispaperaretoprovidebackgroundonexistingCDDevidence,identifygapsintheoryandfindings,andoutlineapathforwardtoaddressunansweredquestionsthroughadiversesetofresearchapproachessuitedtoCDD.ThepaperidentifiesasetofpriorityresearchquestionsrelatedtoCDD’simpactsandprovidesguidanceonthetypesofmethods/toolsthatarebestsuitedtoaddressthequestions.Byextension,italsoidentifiesbroaderinferences(and‘lessons’)thatcanbedrawnfromindividualstudies,andhowsuchknowledgemightinformkeyoperationaldecisionspertainingtoinitiating,designing,refining,replicating,scaling–andpotentiallyshuttingdownsome–CDDinitiatives.However,theextenttowhichthepapercanprovidespecificlessonsforoperationaldesignislimitedbythenatureoftheexistingresearch.Thepriorityobjectiveofthispaperisnottoprovidedetailedoperationalguidance,butrathertoidentifyandarticulatealearningagendaonhowtobuildmoreoperationallyrelevantevidencemovingforward.Overthelongterm,thelearningagendaoutlinedinthispapercanhelpoptimizetheimpactsofcurrentCDDprojects,informthedesignofnewprojects,anddevelopanunderstandingofwhatprojectdesignsaremostscalableindifferentcontexts.

Thelearningagendaoutlinedinthispaperisbasedonadeskreviewofexistingevidenceandmethods,andbyinputfromCDDpractitionersandevaluators.ThereviewofexistingevidencebuildsonotherrelevantreviewsincludingMansuriandRao(2012),WongandGuggenheim(2018),andWinklerandLinneman(2022).Ourpaperaddstothispastworkby(i)summarizingCDD’simpactsonsocialsustainabilityoutcomes;(ii)identifyingwhatremainsunknownaboutCDD’simpacts,especiallywhenitcomestocontext,design,andimplementation;and(iii)outliningasetofmethodsandtoolstoaddresstheseremainingquestions.Despitethesecontributions,thepaperhasatleasttwokeylimitations.First,thereviewofevidencefocusesonCDDasdefinedinthepaperandisnotmeanttobeasystematicreviewofalltheliteratureonCDD.BroadeningthedefinitionofCDD–forexample,toalltypesofparticipatorydevelopment–orapplyingamoresystematicreviewoftheevidencemayyielddifferentconclusions.Ournarrowerapproachensuresthereismoreconsistencyacrosstheprojectswereviewandfocusesonthetypesofprojectsthatareoftenrequestedandfinancedatscalebygovernments.Second,thepaperdoesnotcompareCDD’simpactstothoseofotherdevelopmentinterventions.ThiscomparisonisnotstraightforwardgiventhewidevariationinCDDdesigns;however,futureresearchshouldexplorecomparisonsbetweenspecificelementsofCDDprojectsandotherdevelopmentinterventions.Thispaperinsteadfocusesonhowvariationincontext,design,andimplementationwithinCDDaffectsoutcomes.

Thepaperhasmultipleaudiences.Fordevelopmentpractitioners,itaimstosummarizeevidenceaswellaswhatweknowabouttheelementsofprojectdesign,implementation,andcontextthatshapeoutcomes.ThiscanhelpinformthenextgenerationofoperationaldesignsofCDDandCLDprojects.Forprojectteamsandevaluators,itwillsetoutaseriesofquestionsandideasonmethodsthatcanbeusedtoassessprojectefficacy.Beyondthis,itseekstocontributetobroaderdebatesonhowweconceptualizeandmeasure‘impact’forcomplexdevelopmentinterventionsthatallowforhighlevelsoflocaldiscretioninprojectimplementation.WhilethepaperfocusesonevidencefromevaluationsofCDDprojects,thelearningagendaitidentifieswillhaverelevanceforthebroadersetofCLDinterventions.Tothisend,thepaperisstructuredasfollows.Section2providesanoverviewofCDDdefinitionsandintroducesaframeworkforconceptualizingCDDwithinthebroaderconceptofCLD.Section3reviewstheexistingevidence,withafocusonCDD’simpactsacrossfourcomponentsofsocialsustainability–inclusion,resilience,cohesion,andprocesslegitimacy.Section4outlinesthepriorityresearchgapsonCDDandprovidesrecommendationsonempiricalapproachesandtoolsthatcanhelpfillthesegaps.Section5concludesandacknowledgesthechallengestoadvancingthelearningagendaonCDD.

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2.WhatisCDDandhowhasitevolved?

Community-drivendevelopment(CDD)isanapproachtolocaldevelopmentthatemphasizescommunitycontroloverplanningdecisionsandinvestmentresources.CDDprogramsprioritizecommunityparticipationandvoiceintheplanning,implementation,anddecision-makingprocessesofdevelopment.Thisapproachenablescommunitiestoworkinpartnershipwithnationalandlocalgovernmentstoidentifyandmanagecommunity-levelinvestments.CDDhasbecomeapopulardevelopmentinterventionbecauseofitsapproachtowardempoweringlocaldecision-makinganditsreputationforgettingresourcestocommunitiesefficientlyandbuildinglocalinstitutionalcapacityandaccountability.Byfocusingonbottom-upprocesses,CDDprojectshaveshownanabilitytodeliverevenwherestatecapacityislacking,wheredataisscarce,andinthehighlyfluidenvironmentsthatcharacterizecontextsaffectedbyfragility,conflict,andviolence(FCV)(Samii2023).Thatsaid,itisimportanttostressthatthepurposeofthisexerciseisnotto‘prove’thatCDDcategorically“works”(ornot);rather,itistoidentifysomeofthekeyconditionsshapingthewaysandextenttowhichCDDhasworked(andforwhom),asabasisforinformingdiscussionsaboutthelikelihoodthatscalingorreplicationeffortsmightsucceed.

GovernmentandnongovernmentorganizationsaroundtheworldhaveutilizedCDDapproachestodeliverbasicservices,improvecriticalinfrastructure,distributesocialprotection,respondtocrises,andbuildlocalinstitutions.ThisincludeslargeandsmallprojectsinplaceslikeSouthSudan,Afghanistan,thePhilippines,Myanmar,Rwanda,andUzbekistan.Thediversityofprojectsaroundtheworldunderscoresitspopularityandimportanceasadevelopmenttool.However,thisdiversitycanalsobeasourceofconfusionbecausenotallprojectshavesimilardesignsandobjectiveswhich,inturn,canmuddletheconversationabouttheeffectivenessofCDD.ItisthereforehelpfultobrieflyoutlinewhatwemeanwhenwesayCDD.

CDD’sconceptualoriginsarerootedinideasaboutcommunityself-governance,efficientservicedelivery,andparticipatorydevelopment.

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Communitieswillalmostalwayshavemoreknowledgeabouttheirneeds,andhowtheycanbeaddressed,thancentralplanners(Easterly2006).Potentially,theyalsohavegreaterincentivestousefundsinefficientandnon-corruptways.Wherecommunitiesholdfundsanddecideonhowtousethem,therecanbea“shortroute”toaccountableservicedelivery(WorldBank2004).Inparticular,incountrieswherestatecapabilitiesarelimited,providingresourcesdirectlytocommunities,andgivingthemresponsibilitiestomanagethem,canallowforservicedeliveryandlessentheloadonstateswherecapacityisstretchedthin(Andrews,Pritchett,andWoolcock2017).Theearlyliteratureonsocialcapital(e.g.,Coleman1988;Putnam1993)highlightedhowlocalsocialandculturalinstitutionsshapedpatternsofcooperationandcollectiveactionandhowthisinfluenceddevelopmentoutcomes.Inprinciple,CDDhasthepotentialtostrengthensuchinstitutionsandassociationallife(seefurtherdiscussiononthisbelow).TheparticipationinducedbyCDDprojectscouldalsohavethepotentialtohelpbuildthefoundationsfordemocratizeddevelopment.Suchparticipationisseenbymanyasaright(MansuriandRao2012).

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Inshort,asWongandGuggenheim(2018)argue,community-drivendevelopmentprogramsoftenrestontheideathatthey:(i)areanefficientwaytoquicklyimprovebasicdevelopmentinfrastructure;and(ii)arepopularwithcommunitiesbecausetheyengagepoorpeopleassubjectsratherthanobjectsofdevelopment.

10SeetheessaysinthefestschriftforMichaelCernea(Koch-WiesserandGuggenheim2021)onhowsocialtheoryshapedthebeginningsandevolutionofsocialdevelopmentworkintheWorldBank,especiallyGuggenheim(2021)onCDD.

11Article25oftheInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRightsoutlinestheuniversalrightofallcitizenstotakepartinpublicaffairs.

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AbroaddefinitionofCDDreferstoanyinitiativethat‘induces’communityparticipationinthedevelopmentprocess.Whereas‘organic’participationoriginateswithcivicgroups,ofteninresponsetoagovernmentormarketfailure,‘induced’participationoriginateswithapolicyordevelopmentintervention(MansuriandRao2012).Suchinterventionsrecognizetheroleofcivilsocietyindevelopmentandthereforeattempttomobilizecivilsocietyparticipationtoad