語言文化論文-淺談非言語交際及其在交際中的影響.doc

語言文化論文-淺談非言語交際及其在交際中的影響AbstractSincelanguagehasbeencomeintobeing,itplaysacommandingroleasameansofcommunication,butnottheonlymeansofit.Nonverbalcommunicationtakesplacewithverbaloneatthesametimeinthecommunication.However,verbalcommunicationconveysthemessageinaconvenientanddirectwaywhichmakespeopledependmoreonsuchcommunicativemeanswhileneglectthenonverbalone.Soitisnotsurprisingthattraditionallylanguagestudieshaveemphasizedverbalandwrittenforms,butrecentlynonverbalcommunicationhasreceivedmoreandmoreattentionandbecomeayoungsciencewhichisrelatedtomanyothersubjects.Afterbrieflyreviewingachievementsmadeinthestudyofnonverbalcommunication,thisthesisintroducesthedefinition,classification,function,andculturaldifferencesoncross-culturalnonverbalcommunication.Aimingtopointthesignificanceofnonverbalcommunication,itfocusesontheinfluenceofnonverbalcommunicativeapproachincommunication,especiallyinteachingwiththeimplicationtoit.Inreality,nonverbalcommunicationhasbeenwidelyusedinmanyfields,soitisnecessarytolearnsomethingaboutitinordertoimproveourcommunicativequality.KeyWordsnonverbalcommunication；culturaldifference；function；influence；teaching【摘要】自從語言產生以來，言語交際便在人類交際中扮演最主要的角色，但并非是交際的唯一手段。在傳播過程中，非言語交際與言語交際是同時進行的，然而言語交際較為快捷地傳遞信息，因此人們較多依賴于此種交際手段而忽視非言語表達。難怪對于語言的研究，傳統(tǒng)上較重視口語及書面語這兩種言語交際形式，而很少顧及非言語交際形式；然而近年來，非言語交際手段越來越受到語言學家們的關注，成為一門跨學科的新興科學。本文簡述了非言語交際的研究成果，從定義、基本分類、功能、跨文化非言語交際的文化差異這幾方面對其作了簡要介紹。為了指出非言語交際的重要性，著重論述非言語交際在交際中的影響尤其對教學產生的影響，從而得出對教學的啟示。在現(xiàn)實生活，非言語交際被廣泛應用于許多領域，因此為提高交際質量有必要對非言語交際作一些了解。【關鍵詞】非言語交際；文化差異；功能；影響；教學IntroductionSincelanguagehasbeencomeintobeing,itbecomesthemostimportantcommunicativetoolforhumanbeing,butnottheonlyone.Whenweareinvolvedincommunicating,weneedtomobilizeourfacialexpression,bodymovement,intonation,temperature,color,smell,clothingandbodydecoration,time,spaceandmanyotherwaystocommunicatewitheachother,besidesusinglanguagetotransmitinformation.Thesemeansforcommunicationwithoutwordsareso-callednonverbalcommunication.TraditionallyLanguagestudieshaveemphasizedverbalandwrittenforms,andrecentlynonverbalcommunicationhasreceivedmoreandmoreattention.InmypaperIllpresentsomebasicconceptions,functions,culturaldifference，andinfluenceonteachingespecially.1.AbriefreviewofnonverbalcommunicationstudiesTheearlieststudyofnonverbalcommunicationcouldbetracedbacktothatofvariousschoolsofthinkersinpre-QinDynastyandGreekphilosopherAristotle.ConfuciuspaidmoreattentiontoappearanceandpostureindifferentoccasionsandAristotleanalyzedexpressivewaysofbehaviorsinhisworks.1(P10)ThescientificstudyofnonverbalcommunicationprimarilystartedafterWorldWarII.Oneofthemostinfluentialpre-twentiethcenturyworkswasDarwinsExpressionoftheEmotionsinManandAnimalsin1872.Thisworkspawnedthemodernstudyoffacialexpression,andmanyofhisobservationsandideashavebeenvalidatedbyotherresearchers.Inthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury,thestudyofnonverbalcommunicationstillremainedunsystematicfortherewereonlyisolatedstudiesofvoice,physicalappearance,dressandfacialexpressions.ThethreeinfluentialworksduringthisperiodwereKretschmersbookPhysiqueandCharacterin1925,SheldonsbookTheVariationsofHumanPhysiquein1940,andEfronsbookGestureandEnvironmentin1941.In1950s,therewasasignificantincreaseinthenumberofnonverbalresearchefforts.BirdwhistellsIntroductiontoKinesicsin1952andHallsSilentLanguagein1959weretwomilestonesofthisdecade.In1956,RueschandKeesproducedabookentitledNonverbalCommunication:NotesontheVisualPerceptionofHumanRelations.Thiswasthefirstbooktousethetermnonverbalcommunicationinitstitle.1960sproduceda“nuclearexplosion”ofnonverbalstudies.Duringthistime,theclassictheoreticalpiecewasEkmansandFriesensarticleontheorigins,usage,andcodingofnonverbalbehavior.The1970sprovedtobeatimeofsummarizingandsynthesizingonnonverbalstudies.ItbeganwithJuliusFastsBodyLanguagein1970.Thisbookwasthebest-sellingvolumeatthattimeandithasnowbeentranslatedintoseveralChineseversions.The1980swereatimeoffurtherdevelopmentofnonverbalcommunicationstudies.Somenonverbalresearchesofthisdecadefocusedonidentifyingthewaysavarietyofnonverbalsignalsworktogethertoaccomplishcommoncommunicativegoals.Theresearchonnonverbalbehaviorinourcountrybeganfrom1980s.ScholarssuchasHuWenzhong,BiJiwan,DengYianchangandLiuRunqinghavedonesomeresearchwork.2(P40-41)Whywebegantheresearchonnonverbalcommunicationlaterthanwesterncountries,sofarasIknow,thereresomereasonsforit.SinceJosephStalinhadcriticizedthe“gesture”ofMarin1950,thescholarsinourcountrywhostudiedlinguistictheoryconsidereditasguidingprincipletoconfirmthefunctionoflanguagecommunicationabsolutelywithoutconsideringthepositionandfunctionofnonverbalcommunicationincommunication.Asaresult,therangeofstudyisonlylimitedtolanguageandcommunicativetoolbasedonlanguage.1(P1)Andduring1960s-1970sCulturalRevolutionhappenedinourcountrybringingadisastertothestudyofthisfield.2.DefinitionandclassificationofnonverbalcommunicationTherearevariousdefinitionsfornonverbalcommunicationamongdifferentscholars.AccordingtoKnapp2(P41)thephrasenonverbalcommunicationreferstocommunicationeffectbymeansotherthanwords(assumingwordsaretheverbalelement).Whendefiningnonverbalcommunication,SamovarandPorterproposethat“nonverbalcommunicationinvolvesallthosenonverbalstimuliinacommunicationsettingthataregeneratedbyboththesourceandhisorheruseoftheenvironmentandthathavepotentialmessagevalueforthesourceorreceiver”.Inthisdefinition,theroleoftheenvironment,themessagevalueofnonverbalstimuliandthecommunicationsettingareemphasizedasthreeimportantfactorsinnonverbalcommunication.2(P41)Inshort,nonverbalmeansforcommunication,whichisconsideredas“silentlanguage”,expressesmeaningsorfeelingswithoutusingwords.Asdifferentlinguistsdescribenonverbalcommunicationindifferentdimensions,thereisnogeneralagreementinclassificationasyet.Hereweonlyproposesomeofthecommontopicsmostcommunicationtheoristsaddressthemselvesto:“Nonverbalcommunicationconsistsofallsignalingsystemsthatdonotusewords.”3(P181)1)bodymodesofnonverbalcommunication(kinesics):posture,gestures,eyecontact,facialexpressions,appearance,smell,shiftsinskincolor,usesofclothingandbodydecoration,bodyorientation,anyothermovementofanyotherpartofthebody；2)spacelanguage(bodydistanceorproxemics):bodytouchandbodydistance；3)paralanguage(voicemodulation):speed,pitch,volume,pause,intonation,etc；4)timelanguage:timeorientation(past,present,andfuture),monochromic(M-time)andpolychromic(P-time)；5)environmentalcommunication(interrelationshipbetweenpeopleandtheirenvironments):architecture,object,color,lighting,odorsetc；6)communicationofgeneticcharacteristics,whichareconsideredbysomescholarsasnonverbalcommunication；7)variousartformsandmediasuchaspainting,architecture,music,film,ballet,andmime3.FunctionsofnonverbalbehaviorincommunicationInsometypesofcommunicationpeopleexpressmorenonverballythanverbally.“OnestudydoneintheUnitedStatesshowedthatinthecommunicationofattitudes,93%ofthemessagewastransmittedbythetoneofthevoiceandbyfacialexpressions,whereasonly7%ofthespeakersattitudewastransmittedbywords.”4(P122)Nonverbalcommunicationissignificantinhumaninteractionbecauseitisusuallyresponsibleforfirstimpression.Thinkforamomentforhowoftenyourfirstjudgmentsarebasedonthecolorofapersonsskinorthemannerinwhichheorsheisdressed.Moreimportant,thoseinitialmessagesusuallyinfluencetheperceptionofeverythingelsethatfollows.Nonverbalbehaviorsandverbalcommunicationinteractincommunicationprocess.Forsimplicity,nonverbalcommunicationservestorepeat,complement,reinforce,substitute,regulateorevencontradictourverbalbehavior.4(P137-139)3.1RepeatingNonverbalcommunicationcansimplyrepeatwhatwassaidverbally.Forinstance,verbalstatementsofagreementordisagreementareoftenaccompaniedbyanodorshakeoftheheadtoconveypositiveornegativefeelings.Wemightholdupourhandinthegesturethatsignifiesapersontostopatthesametimeweactuallyusetheword“stop”.Orwemightpointinacertaindirectionafterwehavejustsaid(whentellapersonthewaytotherailwaystation,yougenerallyaddalittleinformationbypointingintheproperdirection.).Thesecouldbeconsideredrepetitionbecausetheyindicatethesamemeaningastheverbalmessages.3.2ComplementingCloselyrelatedtorepeatingiscomplementing.Althoughmessagesthatrepeatcanstandalone,complementinggenerallyaddsmoreinformationtomessages.Nonverbalsignalscanmodifyorelaborateonverbalmessages.Theactorsoractressesofcomedyorskitorshortcrosstalkaregoodatperformingbodylanguagetomaketheirperformancelivelyandmoreeasilyattracttheattentionofaudiences.Ifyoutellyourfriendthatyouhavenomoneytolendhim,youmayturnoutyourpocketstoshowyoursincereregret.Youcantellsomeonethatyouarepleasedwithhisorherperformance,butthismessagetakesonextrameaningifyoupatthepersonontheshoulderatthesametime.Theseimportantactionshelpustocomplement,completeourverbalbehavior.Youcanseehowanapologybecomesmoreforcefulifyourface,aswellasyourwords,issaying,“Imsorry.”Thisfunctionofnonverbalcommunicationindicatesthatnonverbalcommunicationissupplementarytoverbalbehaviorincommunication.Ifitseparatesfromverballanguage,themessageconveyedbynonverbalsymbolswillfailtobeunderstoodwhichresultsinfailureofperformingnormalhumancommunication.BritishPrimeMinisterWinstonChurchillstressedtheartofspeech.Onceinhisspeech,hesaid,“Thelevelofourlifenowhasexceededanytimeinhistory,forweeatsomuch.”Tothispoint,hestoppedonpurposelookingattheaudiencesforawhile.Thenhecontinuedwiththefingerpointingtohishugestomach,“thisispowerfulevidence.”Churchillusednonverbalapproachtwicetoassistverballanguage.Atfirst,heintentionallyusedpausetoattracttheattentionofthemass；thenheskillfullyusedthebodylanguage-pointinghisbeerbellytoreceivevivideffect.5(P17)Soonlywhenlinguisticcommunicationsystemmixeswithnonverbalcommunicationcanitformacompletecommunicativesystem.Ifitbreaksawayfromthecooperationandassistanceofnonverbalbehavior,itishardtoattaineffectivegoalofcommunication.3.3ReinforcingNonverbalsignalsmaybeusedtoemphasizeaportionoftheverbalmessage.Peoplefrequentlyusemovementsoftheheadandhandssuchasnods,blinks,squints,andshrugs,tohelpaccentorpunctuatetheverbalmessage.Ifyousay“Iloveyou”tosomeoneyoucareabout,ahugorkissisusuallyfollowed.Reinforcingcanalsobeachievedbychangingthepitchorstressonawordorgroupofwords.Ourentiremeaningreliesmoreheavilyonwordsthatareaccented.Forinstance:(1)Iwanttotalkwithhim.(Thesentencemeaninglaysemphasisonthepersonwhowantstotalk.)(2)Iwanttotalkwithhim.(Thesentencemeaningreliesontheactionthatthepersonwantstoperform.)(3)Iwanttotalkwithhim.(Thesentencemeaningputsstressontheconversationalpartnerwithwhomthepersonwantstocommunicate.)3.4SubstitutingWeusesubstitutioninnonverbalcommunicationwhenweperformsomeactioninsteadofspeaking.Quiteafewnonverbalmessagesarecommonlyusetotaketheplaceofwords.Ifyouseeaveryspecialfriend,youareapttoenlargethesizeofyoursmileandthrowopenyourarmstogreethimorher,whichisasubstituteforallthewordsitwouldtaketoconveythesamefeeling.Ifagroupofpeopleisboisterous,youmightplaceyourindexfingertoyourlipsasanalternativetosaying,“PleasecalmdownsothatIcanspeak.”Sometimes,whenwearetoosadorexcitedtosayanything,wejustkeepsilent.Oursilencemayreplaceanyverbalmessages.Insomesituationverbalwordsareunnecessaryforsilenceatthemomentsurpasseswords.6(P12)BeforeIraqwasintrudedbytheUS,Iraqiex-presidentSaddamHusseinfiredtowardtheskyinthepresenceofthemasstoshowtheangerandthedecisionoffightingagainsttheUS.(fromTVreport)TheactionthepresidentshowedwouldbemorepowerfulthanwordsthatcalledontheIraqipeopletocounterattackAmericantroops.Fordeaf-mutes,borntobeunabletocommunicateverballylikenormalpeople,thesignlanguageorgestureprovidesopportunityforthemtocommunicatewithothersinthesilentworld.Inthiscase,nonverbalcommunicationreplacesthefunctionofverbalone.Fornonverbalcommunicationtoactassubstitution,itmustbeinterpretedinspecificculture.Herearesomeexamples:Ifwetrytouseourculturesnonverbalsubstitutesinanotherculture,misunderstandingsmayoccur.Arabmenoftengreetbykissingonbothcheeks.InBuddhismcountriesofSoutheastAsialikeThailand,peoplegreetwithbothhandsclosedinfrontofchest.InJapan,mengreetbybowing,andintheUnitedStates,peopleshakehands.Americanswhosay“I”bypointingtotheirchestswouldnotbeunderstoodinJapan,where“I”issymbolizedbypointingtoonesnose.3.5RegulatingWeoftenregulateandmanagecommunicationbyusingsomeformofnonverbalbehavior:wenodourheadinagreementtoindicatetoourcommunicationpartnerthatweagreeandthatheorsheshouldcontinuetalking；orweremainsilentforamomentandletthesilencesendthemessagethatwearereadytobeginourspeech.Nonverbalbehaviorsusuallyrepresentthemostefficientandleastoffensivemeansofregulatinginteraction.Tosay,“Shutup,Tom”maytriggerahostileanddefensivereaction；topresentthesamemessagebyeyecontactorgestureisamoredesirableway.Noddingandeyecontactaretwotypicalnonverbalhintsthatmean“Iwanttotalk”and“Itsyourturntotalk”.Whenwewanttoindicatewehavefinishedspeakingandtheotherpersoncanstartinaconversation,wemayincreaseoureyecontactwiththeotherperson.Conversely,ifwewanttokeeptheotherfromspeaking,wemaydecreaseeyecontactandperhapsraisethevolume.Whenwedonotwanttotakeaspeakingturn,wemightreinforceourheadnodsandmaintainattentiveeyecontact.Rapidnodsmaysignalthespeakertohurryupandfinishwhileslowandsilentnodsusuallyindicatethespeakerstalkingwillcontinue.3.6ContradictingThetermcontradictingincludesavarietyofwaysverbalandnonverbalsignalsarenotinagreementwitheachother.Ayoungwomantoldherpsychologicaldoctorthatshewasdeeplyinlovewithherboyfriendwithshakingherheadatthesametimethatunconsciouslydisapprovedwhatshesaid.7(P3)“Hethathaseyestoseeandearstohearmayconvincehimselfthatnomortalcankeepasecret.”(SigmundFreud3(P181)Thatistosay,ournonverbalactionswouldtellthetruthsthataretriedtocoverbyverbalmessages.Youtellsomeoneyouarerelaxedandatease,yetyourvoicequaversandyourhandsshake.Thecontradictorymessageoccursbecausepeopledonotwanttotellthetruthandtheydonotwanttolie.Inmostcases,wedontliketocontradictothers,hurttheirfeelingorletthemloseface.Whenafriendgaveaterriblepresentation,wemaysay“Youdiditquitewell.”butourvoice,faceandbodymaynotsupportthewords.Onotheroccasions,peopleevenusecontradictorymessagestocommunicatesarcasmorirony,sayingonethingwithwordsbutmeaningtheoppositewithvocaltoneorfacialexpressions.Becausepeoplerelymostlyonnonverbalmessageswhentheyreceiveconflictingdata,weneedtobeawareofthedangersinherentinsendingopposingmessages.4.SomenonverbalbehaviorsindifferentculturesMuchofourdifficultywithpeopleinothercountriesstemsfromthefactthatsolittleisknownaboutnonverbalcommunication.Formaltraininginthelanguage,history,government,andcustomsofanothernationisonlythefirststepinacomprehensiveprogram.Ofequalimportanceisanintroductiontothenonverballanguagewhichexistsineverycountryoftheworldandamongthevariousgroupswithineachcountry.Cultureisall-persuasive,multidimensional,andboundless；itiseverywhereandineverything.Thesameisalsotrueofnonverbalbehavior.Ourclothesandjewelry,thecountlessexpressionswecanreflectwithourface,thehundredsofmovementswecanmakewithourbodies,whereandhowwetouchpeople,ourgazeandeyecontact,vocalbehaviorssuchaslaughter,andouruseoftime,space,andsilencearejustsomeofthebehaviorsinwhichweengagethatserveasmessage.4.1GeneralappearanceanddressIninterculturalcommunication,appearanceandobjectsareimportantbecausethestandardsweapplyandthejudgmentswemakearesubjecttoculturalinterpretations.IntheUn