英語寫作知識要點1.doc

1 寫作教與學入手的四個方面l Mechanics of writing：標點符號、大小寫、頁面格式及基本的語法問題（如主謂一致問題等）；l From words to sentences (遣詞造句);l From paragraphs to whole compositions（段落及全文謀篇布局）；l Academic and practical writing2 英語段落的三個基本特質：（P81 Two basic qualities of effective paragraphs） 全段圍繞一個中心思想展開（Unity）； 句與句之間的聯(lián)系與過渡要緊密、自然或合乎邏輯（Coherence/Cohesion）； 發(fā)展充分 （Well-developedness）。也就是說，一個好的只有一個主題，所有句子在意義上始終保持統(tǒng)一，緊緊圍繞這一主題展開；段落結構組織合理、順暢，句與句之間的聯(lián)接與過渡自然、順理成章；整個段落能夠充分地表達這一主題思想，內容上沒有任何殘缺。3 段落的結構與發(fā)展3.1 段落的結構段落是由若干個彼此關聯(lián)的句子構成的，通常用以表達一個中心思想或者從一個角度對文章的主題進行闡述。因此，段落不能是一組句子的任意堆砌，而是遵循一定段落發(fā)展方法的。當然, 這并不是說，所有的段落都遵循著相同的、固定的模式。在讀、寫實踐中，我們會遇到一些段落，只有一兩句話，在文中起承前啟后的過渡作用或扮演導言或結束語的角色。但，我們遇到的大多數(shù)句子并不是這樣，它們在內容上比較豐富，結構較為復雜。以下所講，就是一般的英語段落的結構。結構完整的段落由三部分組成：主題句（Topic sentence）、發(fā)展句（Supporting sentences）和總結句（Concluding sentence）；一個段落的一般長度為：4-8個句子請讀下面這一段文字，注意其結構：Different people go to universities for different reasons. Some people go to a university for specialized training. They go to learn about medicine or law or engineering or nursing and so on to prepare for particular jobs. Other people go to a university to learn as much as they can about the world and the people around themselves. Still others go to a university because they want the honor of a university degree. And, of course, there are some people who go to a university because they have nothing else to do. It is clear that different people expect different things from a university education.3.1.1 主題句主題句通常由主題和作者的觀點兩部分組成，作為段落傳遞信息的出發(fā)點，簡明扼要地告訴讀者段落的線索和范圍。所以，寫好主題句是寫好一個段落的前提。另外，主題句的位置并不是固定不變的，它可以位于段首，也可以位于段中、段尾。此外，有極少數(shù)情況下，段落沒有主題句。3.1.2 發(fā)展句 發(fā)展句是用來支持或說明主題句的，是段落主題句的延伸和發(fā)展，起著輔助主題句、推展段落中心的作用，對主題句表達的中心思想或舉例說明、或細致描寫、或詳細解釋闡述和論證，使讀者能夠清晰地理解和信服地接受作者所表達的意思。發(fā)展句一般要具備這樣的特點：（1）清晰、詳實，有較強的說服力，能清楚地表達思想；（2）條理分明，脈絡清晰。上一句要為下一句鋪平道路，下一句是上一句的自然延伸，一步一步地論述或敘述主題。段落內容應該保持完整、統(tǒng)一，沒有說明不足之處或多余冗長的細節(jié)。一個段落通常有若干個發(fā)展句。這些發(fā)展句可以處于同一個層次，共同來為主題句服務；也可以在一級發(fā)展句之下用二級發(fā)展句來支持一級發(fā)展句，從而構成發(fā)展句之間的層次關系。但在段落中如果有多個不同層次的發(fā)展句時，必須要合理地安排它們，既要作到簡潔清晰、意義連貫、合乎邏輯，又要作到層次分明并緊緊地圍繞主題句，為主題句服務；同時還要注意一級發(fā)展句、二級發(fā)展句等和主題句之間的關系。一級發(fā)展句為主題句服務，二級發(fā)展句支持一級發(fā)展句來說明或論證主題句。(1)In rock music there is a distinct and almost overwhelming beat. (2)No single beat is characteristic of the music today. （3）But each song has an easily recognizable rhythm. (4)As you listen to a song, your foot usually starts to pick up the beat. (5)Before long, your entire body seems to be moving with it. （6）Your head pounds with the beat, and there is no room for thought. （7）Only the surge of the music is important. (8)In its own way, rock music is as dominant as the rock Gibraltar. Its message is an overgrowing emotional one.在這一段中，句（1）是段落主題句，點出本段主題思想，要說明“搖滾樂最突出的特點是其節(jié)奏”。句（2）、（3）是一級發(fā)展句，對主題句進一步補充說明；而句（4）、（5）、（6）是二級發(fā)展句，從屬于句（2），對句（2）起著補充、解釋和說明的作用，更形象、生動地證明了主題句所表達的思想。這里，句（7）是總結句。3.1.3 總結句 總結句位于段落的末尾，在段落中也起著非常重要的作用，用以對全段內容進行總結、歸納或提出結論性的觀點?？偨Y句常和主題句相呼應，以不同的形式再現(xiàn)主題，并與發(fā)展句相關聯(lián)。但是并非任何段落都必須有總結句才算完整。有的段落，尤其是一些較短的段落中只有主題句沒有總結句。A contract is an agreement which is enforceable by law. It can be long or short, formal or informal, simple or complicated, and verbal or written. Without a contract or agreement to bind the contracting parties, any international business or transaction would be impossible. Long age, people exchanged promises in making bargains and binding the conduct of others. This exchange of promises came to be known as “agreement” and became more and more important in the fields of business. A promise or agreement is reached as a result of the process of offer and acceptance. When an agreement is reached, a contract is formed. Once a contract is officially signed by the concerned parties, it creates legal obligations in the sense of law.3.2 段落的發(fā)展1時間順序法2 空間順序法3 列舉法用來列舉一系列的原因、方法等等，使文章層次分明，脈絡一目了然。There are a number of ways for us to keep fit. First, no matter how busy we are, we should have exercise every day to strengthen our muscles. Second, it is important to keep good hours. For example, if we are in the habit of going to bed early and getting up early, we can avoid overworking ourselves and get enough sleep. Finally, entertainment is also necessary so that we may have some moments of relaxation. If we follow those instructions, we will certainly be in good health.4 例證法舉具體的事例來證明觀點，這是議論文最常用的方法，盡量找最能體現(xiàn)觀點的例子，具體點，微觀點，給人說服力。請看下面作者論證“不勞無獲”的觀點，用的是拳擊運動的例子。如：The saying “No pains, no gains” is universally accepted because of the plain yet philosophical moral teachings: if one wants to achieve something, he has to work and tolerate more than others. The saying is true of any pursuit man seeks. A case in point is boxing. While we heap cheers on the winner, few happen to imagine that his gold belt is won at the cost of his sweat, tears, blood, even life over years before the arrival of that exciting moment.5 對比法 (comparison and contrast)對比法是指通過敘述或描述兩種或兩種以上的相關事物之間的相同（相似）的地方或不同之處來表達主題。采用對比法展開段落主要通過兩種途徑：一是先敘述對比雙方的一個方面的全部細節(jié)，然后再敘述另一個方面的全部細節(jié)；另一個途徑是對逐個問題進行雙方面的比較。Why do so many graduates gravitate into business instead of into teaching? Part of the reason is the ever-widening pay gap between these two professions. A secretary, an office clerk or a bank employee can earn monthly income as high as RMB 2，000, and when one is promoted to the position of a business executive or manager, the salary is even higher. But a college graduate with a masters degree can only get a salary of RMB 1，000 per month for his teaching job. No wonder, college graduates are attracted into more lucrative（profitable） fields.本段的主題是為什么那么多的大學畢業(yè)生從商，而不從事教學工作。作者運用對比法，說明由于兩種職業(yè)之間存在著越來越大的收入差異，所以有好多學生畢業(yè)后選擇從商，而不選擇從教。There are striking similarities between two of the most popular U.S. presidents, Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy. Both men had their elections legally challenged. Lincoln and Kennedy are both remembered for their sense of humor, as well as for their interest in civil rights. Lincolns secretary was Mrs. Kennedy; Kennedys secretary was Mrs. Lincoln. Neither man took the advice of his secretary not to make a public appearance on the day on which he was assassinated. Lincoln and Kennedy were both killed on Friday in the presence of their wives. And finally, the same caisson（彈藥車） carried the bodies of both men in their funeral processions.本段采用對比法通過第一種途徑展開段落。這里，作者將美國歷史上兩位偉大的總統(tǒng)林肯與肯尼迪從六個方面作了比較，描述他們的相似之處。6 分類法分類法是按一定標準對事物進行歸類的一種段落發(fā)展方法。通過分類，可以使文章脈絡一目了然。例如：Examinations fall into three kinds. One is the machine-scored “objective” type. In an objective test, the students answer questions by deciding on best choice among a number of alternatives given. Another is the “completion” type. This kind of examination requires the students to add a word or phrase to complete a sentence. And the third type is the essay examination, in which the students are asked to write a composition on a given topic. All these kinds of examinations are designed to reveal what a student may have learned in any particular course.本段采用分類法來展開段落。主題句在段落開頭，指出“考試可分三種類型”。然后，作者運用One is the machine scored “objective type”, Another is the “completion type”, “And the third type is the essay examination” 來清楚地將考試分類闡述，段落脈絡一目了然，層次十分分明。7 定義法定義法是通過簡單易懂而且準確的語言闡明某事物的性質和特征來發(fā)展段落，使讀者對某事物比較抽象的或是難以把握的一些特征有一個較清晰的認識。定義法常用于說明、描寫和論證，以提供更多的具體解釋來說明某一概念或術語。Poetry is a branch of literature which explores ideas, emotions, and experiences in a distinctive form and style. Poetry, sometimes called “verse”, depends greatly on the natural rhythms and sounds of language for its special effects. Poetry, even more than prose (all other writings), depends on precise and suggestive wording. In other words, a poem says much in little space. Poetry differs from prose in obvious ways, also. Most often the first word of every line begins with a capital letter, even in the middle of a sentence. Poems sometimes contain rhyme, and often they have a particular rhythm, like music.本段通過下定義的方法說明什么是詩歌。段落一開始就指出詩歌是一種文學形式。作者在段落首句里用一個which引導的定語從句直接對Poetry進行定義、解釋。后來，還利用同散文（prose）的簡單對比，將詩歌的特點淋漓盡致地展示給讀者。8 因果法因果法是說明事態(tài)發(fā)展的原因和結果之間聯(lián)系的，常用在說明文或議論文中。可以先講原因，后給結果，也可以先給結果，后講原因。這要視實際需要而定。也有一些段落結果是顯而易見的，就集中說明原因；有的段落正好相反，就集中說明結果，因為原因不言自明。The hamburger is the most popular food item in the United States. Every year Americans consume billions of them. They are sold in expensive restaurants and in humble diners. They are cooked at home on the kitchen stove or over a barbecue grill in the backyard. Why are they so popular?First, a hamburger is extremely easy to prepare. It is nothing more than a piece of ground beef, cooked for a few minutes. Then it is placed in a sliced bun. Nothing could be simpler. Even an unskilled cook can turn out hundreds of them in an hour. Besides that, the simple hamburger can be varied in many ways. You can melt some cheese on top of the beef to create a cheeseburger.上面這篇作文講的是“漢堡受歡迎的原因”，第一段提出問題“為什么受歡迎呢？”接下來在說原因時，用到了上面的列舉法，只不過不是“first, second, finally”而是“first, then, besides that”，讓人感覺不落俗套。9 綜合法綜合法是指根據(jù)行文的需要采用兩種或兩種以上的方法來展開段落的寫作方法。綜合法需要具體情況具體分析地使用，千萬不可“眉毛胡子一把抓”，或者信筆胡寫，一定要注意圍繞主題句，以說明段落中心思想為前提，保持段落意思的一致性和連貫性。4 全文的結構與發(fā)展英語寫作一般包括開篇段、正文（發(fā)展段）和一個總結段。開篇段和總結段一般比擴展段短。各種段落的作用、特點和寫作方法如下所示。4.1 開篇段開篇段的作用：概括陳述主題，提出觀點或論點，表明寫作意圖。注意：開篇段一定要語言精練，并且直接切入主題，最忌開篇離題太遠、使用不言自明的陳述、內容空泛、言之無物。開篇段一般不對主題進行深入的探討，具體的論證或敘述應該在擴展段進行。一般地，兩三百字的作文的開篇段有三、五句話就可以了。開篇段常用寫法：主題句法、提問法、引語法、數(shù)據(jù)法、背景法、定義法，等。4.2 正文文章的正文是由若干段落組成，其作用是從不同的層面對文章主題進行具體和詳實的解釋和論證，是文章的主體部分，其篇幅要比開篇段和總結段長。正文的發(fā)展要注意：1) 文章的正文應以文章的開頭為線索，具體地敘述、說明或論證文章的主題。2) 每一個段落中一定要有各自的主題句，各段的主題句都要緊緊圍繞全文的主題思想；3) 段落之間連貫自然；4) 各段內容主次分明、順序安排合理，材料比例適當、邏輯性較強；4.3 結尾文章結尾的作用是概括全文內容，進一步強調或肯定文章的中心思想，使文章意義表達得更加深刻。文章的結尾沒有一定的模式，可以根據(jù)表達主題的需要靈活創(chuàng)造。一般的習慣是，一些記敘文和描寫文經常采用自然結尾的方法；但說理性和邏輯性較強的說明文和議論文則往往都有結束語，以便使文章首尾呼應，結構完整。不管是哪一種結尾，總結段都要干脆利落，深化主題。常見的幾種模式是：1總結歸納：簡要總結歸納文章要點，以便深化主題印象。例如：In conclusion, I would like to say that change is a problem confronting most of us today. The changes which have already taken place in every field of our life are irreversible. Continuation of the growth which has already begun is inevitable. During this evolution there are great rewards to be wonby those who are willing to take the opportunities being offered.2用不同的語詞重復主題句結尾回到文章開頭闡明的中心思想或主題句上，也就是用不同的話語重述全文主題思想，達到強調的效果。3. 根據(jù)前文所述做出自然的、合乎邏輯的預測。例如：It is time that the government should speak out against corruption and take strong action to punish whoever takes bribes or embezzles fund, for present official corruption, if permitted to continue, will not only tarnish the governments popularity, but lead to its ultimate downfall.4. 批評前文中討論的兩種觀點之一，或從中作出選擇，或兩者之間折中處理。My Opinion about GoogleIs Google a good thing or a bad thing? Different people may have different answers. Before giving my opinion, it will be wise to take a look at the advantages and disadvantages that people have raised about it.Among the various advantages that people have listed about Google, the following 3 are most frequently mentioned. First, Google gives its users a kind of e-library in which people can find nearly all the information they need, such as philosophy, geology, fine art and so on, much easier than in the traditional library. Second, people can enjoy finding information on Google at their own home instead of going to the library in which they have to follow the time schedule made by the library. Last but not the least, the appearance of Google largely reduces the time which people spend on finding useful information. All people need to do is to type a few key words about the information they want to find on Google, and then all the relative information will appear on the computer screen in a moment.As to the disadvantages of Google, people often argue in terms of its reliability and the effects it has on its users creativity and health. Some people doubt about the information provided by Google, because they think that the information in Google is second-hand and also including personal intentions of the collectors who select the information from various kinds of newspapers, magazines and other means. The problem is that its not always easy for them to decide what kind of information should be collected or omitted. Some people think that Google kind of leads them to refuse to do any creative thinking. Searching on the Google is as easy as turning on a water tap, so many students download articles from the Google instead of writing by themselves. Sometimes, these people get the feeling that they are losing the ability to think independently and even more they dont like to think up something, and just to copy everything. Still, some people hold that Google should take some responsibility for its users health problem, because it is reported that working at computers for more than two hours will cause bad effects to peoples health. The use of Google will eventually add the time of using computer since people tend to find everything by Google. In my opinion, Google, as a modern device, is of great importance in making peoples life and work more convenient. Its advantages largely outweigh its disadvantages, because its so-called disadvantages are not its own faults at all. Rather, they are all due to peoples improper use of it. If people can use it wisely and dont rely on it too much, the so-called disadvantages of Google can be largely reduced, and many of them can even be avoided.5. 根據(jù)前文所述，提出解決問題的途徑、方法或呼吁人們采取相應的行動；但最忌空呼口號，言之無物。例如：College athletics plays such a vital role that it deserves close attention and persistent effort. It is suggested that physical training should be regarded as a required course wedged into college curricula, however crowded it may be, and that a fair share of college budget should be devoted to athletic programs. We sincerely hope that this suggestion will be a commitment that all colleges and universities will take up.6. 引用一個與文章主題緊密相關的名言警句。Do Unto Others As You Would Have Others Do Unto YouComing directly from the Bible, the phrase, “Do unto others as you would have others do unto you”, means that we should treat others as we would like to be treated. Confuciuss teaching, like “己所不欲，勿施于人”(Do not impose upon others what you do not desire yourself) and “己欲達而達人”(if you want success, then help others be successful), just captures the same spirit conveyed in this Christian saying, which is also called the Golden Rule.Among the morals by which we live, such as honesty, and sensitivity and so on, the Golden Rule embodies our most cherished value. Above all, in our life, interpersonal relationships probably cause more stress and anxiety than any other single factor. Noticeably regularly, conflicts in the home, in the street and other public places provoke and enhance anxiety in most of us. If every one can follow the Golden Rule, and stand in the others shoes, conflicts can be diminished or even be avoided, and harmony can be realized. People can then live in peace and friendliness. However, if every one treats others in any way that seems to serve his or her own immediate best interests, even if it means doing harm to others interests, no one can escape from a state of constant anxiety. Life then will be nothing but a nightmare. That accounts for why many, if not most of us, for most of the time, are practicing the Golden Rule. Practicing that rule is a sign that we are different