現代語言學自考資料

1、第一章緒論1/ What is linguistics?什么是語言學？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics語言學的研究范疇The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. ( 普通語言學 )The study of sou

2、nds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（語音學）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系學）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形態(tài)學）The study of how morphemes and words a

3、re combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法學）The study of meaning in language is called semantics.（語義學）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.（語用學）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics.（社會語言學）The study of language with reference to t

4、he working of mind is called psycho-linguistics.（心理語言學）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （應用語言學） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and

5、learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Otherrelated branches includeanthropologicallinguistics,（ 人 類 語 言 學 ）neurologicallinguistics,linguistics.（神經語言學）（計算機語言學）mathematicallinguistics,（數字語言學）and computational3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics語言學研究中的幾對基本概念Prescript

6、ive and descriptive規(guī)定與描寫If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they shouldnot say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional

7、 grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language peopleactually use, whether it is“ correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic共時和歷時The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study

8、; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing口頭語與書面語Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not

9、 the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.Langue and pa

10、role 語言和言語The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction i

11、n order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Competence and performance 語言能力和語言運用Proposed by

12、 American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950 s.He defines competence as the ideal user knowledges of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.

13、4/ What is language?語言的定義Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Sapir uses“ ideas ”“ emotions ” and“ desires” in his definition. Hall, like Sapir, treats language as apurely human institution. Chomsky s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely struc

14、turalproperties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.5/ Design features語言的甄別性特征Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. American linguis

15、t Charles Hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.Arbitrariness語言的隨意性Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is notentirely arbitrary.Example: different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different lan

16、guages.Productivity語言的創(chuàng)造性Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.Duality語言的二重性The duality na

17、ture of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning.Displacement 語言的移位性Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past,

18、present, or future, or in far-away places.Cultural transmission語言的文化傳遞性Whilehuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were born with the abilitytoacquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have tobe taught and learned anew. This indicat

19、es that language is culturallytransmitted. It is passeddown from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.Chapter 2 Phonology音系學1. The phonic medium of language語言的聲音媒介Speech and writingare the two media used by natural languages as vehicles forcommunication.

20、Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing.Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is alwaysby its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds whi

21、ch are meaningful in human communication and areof interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language語(言的聲音媒介 ) .The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds（語音） .“ invent2What is phonetics?什么是語音學？Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is

22、 concernedwith all the sounds that occur in the world s languages.There are three branches of phonetics. They are:Articulatoryphonetics （發(fā)音語音學）, it studies the speech sounds from thespeaker s point of view. It studies how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.Auditory phonetics（聽

23、覺語音學），it studies the speech sounds from the hearer spoint of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by he hearer.Acoustic phonetics（聲學語音學），it studies the speech sounds by looking at thesound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmittedthrough the air from one pe

24、rson to another.3. Organs of speech發(fā)音器官The pharyngeal cavity咽腔 the throatThe oral cavity口腔the mouthThe nasal cavity鼻腔the noseThe air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in many ways. It may also be modified in the larynx ( 喉 ) before it reaches any of the cavities.Lying ac

25、ross the glottis ( 聲門 ) are the vocal cords ( 聲帶 ). Vibration of the vocal cords results in aquality of speech sounds called“ voicing” . The speed of the vibration determines the pitch of thesound.The tongue is the most flexible in the oral cavity.4.Orthographic representation of speech sounds broad

26、 and narrow transcriptions語音的書寫形式寬式和窄式音標IPA-International Phonetic Alphabet國際音標There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds. One is the transcription with letter-symbols ( 字母符 號 ) only, called broad transcription ( 寬 式 音 標 ). The other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the dia

27、critics ( 變音符號 ), called narrow transcription ( 窄式音標 ).實例：對 pit/spit 中 p 音的比較：pit 中的 p 是送氣音，在窄式音標中標為上標，寫作：phitspit 中的 p 是不送氣音，在寬式音標中不作標示，寫作：spit對 leaf/feel/build/health中 l 音的比較：Leaf 中 l 在元音前，叫清晰音，在寬式音標中不作標示，寫作：li:fFeel 中 l 出現在單詞結尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音標中加變音符號Build 中 l 出現在另一個輔音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音標中也加變音符號Health 中 l 出現在齒

28、音前，受其影響叫齒音l ，在窄式音標中加變音符號II 5. Classification of English speech sounds英語語音的分類a) Classification of English consonants英語輔音的分類按發(fā)音方式分Stop or plosive 塞音或爆破音: p b t d k gFricativeAffricate擦音： f v s z 塞擦音： td s hLiquid 流音： l rNasal 鼻音： m n Glide 滑音： w j按發(fā)音部位分Bilabial 雙唇音： p b m wLabiodental 唇齒音： f vDental 齒

29、音： Alveolar 齒齦音： t d s z n l rPalatal 硬腭音： t d i Velar 軟腭音： k g Glottal 聲門音： hB) Classification of English vowels英語元音的分類按舌頭在口中的位置分：Front vowel 前元音： i: i e aCentral vowel 中元音： : Back vowel 后元音： u: u : a:按口形的大小分：Close vowel 閉元音： i: i u: uSemi-close vowel半閉元音： e :Open vowel 開元音： aSemi-open vowel半開元音： :

30、 a:按唇形是否為圓分Unrounded vowel不圓唇元音： i: i e a : a:rounded vowel 圓唇元音： u: u : 按語音的長短分Long vowel 長元音 i: :a: u: :Short vowel 短元音 i e a u 在元音中還有一些(diphthong) 雙元音，包括： ei ai u a u i i e u 6. Phonology 音系學Phonology and phonetics音系學和語音學Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds.Phonetics is of a

31、general nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages;Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language, it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communicatio

32、n. Thus these two are at once related and distinct branches of linguistic studies.Example:單詞 leap 和 peel 中的 l 音有清晰音和模糊音之分，但音的不同對意義的表達并無關聯。所以，如果從語音學角度來說，這是兩個不同的語音，而從音系學角度來說，這是同一基本實體的兩個變體。音系學家對不引起意義區(qū)別的語音間的細微區(qū)別并不關注，但語音學家卻要對所有的語音進行描述，不論它們之間的差別對表達意義有沒有關系。7. Phone, phoneme, and allophone語音（音素）、音位、音位變體Phon

33、e can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme, it is a unit that i

34、s of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. A phoneme is not a sound, it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.按照慣例，音位被置于兩斜線之間，如/p/ /t/ ，而語音被置于方括號內，如p t.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.

35、8.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair音位對立、互補分布、最小對立對Phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. They might form a contrast if they are two distinctive phonemes, or they do not form a contrast in meaning if they are allophones of the same phoneme.The former i

36、s called phonemic contrast, they can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning.如 rope 和 robe 中的 /p/和 /b/。The latter is called complementary distribution; they are two allophones of the same phoneme.They only occur in different environments.如 top 中的送氣的 p 和 stop 中不送氣的 p 。A basic way

37、to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another one results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs.When two different forms are identical in every way except for

38、 one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.如 pen 和 ben 。9. Some rules in phonology幾條音系規(guī)則A)sequential rules 系列規(guī)則The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.B)assimilation rule

39、s同化規(guī)則The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “ copying ” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.C)deletion rules 省略規(guī)則The rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.10.Suprasegmental features- stress, tone,

40、intonation超切分特征：重音、聲調和語調Distinctive features can also be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.A) Stres

41、s 重音B) Tone 聲調C) Intonation 語調When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.當音高、重音和音長依附于一個句子而不是單個單詞時，這些音素合起來叫做語調。English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise to

42、ne, and the rise-fall tone. The most frequently used are the first three.英語中有四種基本語調：降調、升調、降升調、升降調。最常用的是前三種。Chapter 3 Morphology形態(tài)學Definition 定義Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Morphology is divided into two sub-br

43、anches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter is the study of word formation.形態(tài)學可分為兩個分支科學： 屈折形態(tài)學和詞匯或派生形態(tài)學。 前者研究詞的屈折變化，后者研究詞的構成。2. Morpheme語素The smallest meaningful unit of language語言最小的意義單位。The meaning morphemes convey may b

44、e of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.語素表達的意義有兩種：詞匯意義和語法意義。3. Types of morphemes 語素的分類a) Free morphemes 自由語素Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.b) Bound morphemes 黏著語

45、素Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.4. Types of bound morphemes 黏著語素的分類Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes詞根和詞綴。A root is often seen as part of word; it can never sta

46、nd by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational 屈折詞綴和派生詞綴Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories su

47、ch as number, tense, degree, and case. The English inflectional affixes include:屈折詞綴或屈折語素表明各種不同的語法關系或語法范疇，如：數、時態(tài)、形容詞和副詞的級和格?，F在英語中的屈折詞綴包括：-(e)s, indicating plurality of nouns 表示名詞復數-(e)s, indicating third person singular, present tense表示現在時的第三人稱單數-(e)d, indicating past tense for all three persons表示過去

48、時-ing, indicating progressive aspect 表示進行時-er, indicating comparative degree of adj. and adverbs表示形容詞和副詞比較級 -est, indicating superlative degree of adj. and adverbs表示形容詞和副詞最高級 - s, indicating the possessive case of nouns表示名詞的所有格Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. This

49、 is a very common way to create new words in English. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a deriv

50、ed form itself.派生詞綴加在一個原有的單詞上以構成一個新詞。 這是英語中的一個很常見的構成新詞的方式， 這樣的方式叫派生法， 用派生法構成的新詞叫派生詞。 能夠加上一個派生詞綴的原有語素叫做詞干。 詞干可以是一個黏著詞根、 自由語素或者本身就是一個派生詞。實例：Tolerate詞根 toler- 詞綴 -ateQuickly自由語素 quick 詞綴 -lyCarelessness自由語素 care 詞綴 -less 形成的派生詞 careless 詞綴 -nessAffixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes

51、前綴和后綴Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. Exception are the prefixes -” and “ en“-”be(m).Suffixes are added to the end of the stem, they modify=y the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.5. Mor

52、phological rules形態(tài)學規(guī)則Morphological rules are the rules that govern which affix can be added to what types of stem to form a new word.6. Types of compound words復合詞的類型Noun + noun名詞名詞如： handbook, sunshineAdjective +noun形容詞名詞如： highway, sweetheartAdjective +noun +ed 形容詞名詞 ed 如： white-haired, green=eyedV

53、erb +noun 動詞名詞如： pickpocket, drivewayAdverb +noun 副詞名詞如： downtown, upgradeNoun +verb名詞動詞如： toothpick, snowfallVerb +adverb動詞副詞如： follow-up, kick-offNoun +adjective名詞形容詞如： world-famous, life-long-ing form +noun-ing 形式名詞如： dining-room, reading-glassesOther forms其它形式如： go-between, father-in-law, upbringing, have-nots,thank-you note7. Features of compounds1) Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separ