敏考研閱讀12原則

1、敏考研閱讀12原則 胡敏教授解密考研閱讀命題與對(duì)策節(jié)選自胡敏編著考研英語(yǔ)閱讀理解高分寶典閱讀理解題命題原則與應(yīng)試對(duì)策考生在復(fù)習(xí)備考時(shí)，會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)研究生英語(yǔ)試卷的閱讀理解部分雖只有20道題，分?jǐn)?shù)值卻占總分的40%，而這一部分正是考生的難點(diǎn)所在，所以能否在閱讀理解這一部分取得理想的成績(jī)，就成為考研英語(yǔ)成功的關(guān)鍵所在。如何突破閱讀難關(guān)?怎樣迅速提高閱讀水平?能否找到一些切實(shí)可行的應(yīng)試規(guī)律?面對(duì)考生提出的這些迫切的問(wèn)題，筆者仔細(xì)研究了歷年考題，結(jié)合自己多年的教學(xué)經(jīng)驗(yàn)，針對(duì)考研考試大綱所考核閱讀理解能力的八條要求，并分析回顧歷年考研閱讀理解題目的大致規(guī)律，總結(jié)歸納出考研閱讀理解應(yīng)試的十二大原則，希

2、望能為正在求學(xué)之路上辛苦求索的學(xué)子們助一臂之力。英語(yǔ)考試大綱在閱讀部分要求考生能夠讀懂不同類型的文字材料（生詞量不超過(guò)所讀材料總詞匯量的3），包括信函、書刊和雜志上的文章，還應(yīng)能讀懂與本人學(xué)習(xí)或工作有關(guān)的文獻(xiàn)、技術(shù)說(shuō)明和產(chǎn)品介紹等。根據(jù)所讀材料，考生應(yīng)能：1        理解主旨要義；2        理解文中的具體信息；3        理解文中的概念性含義；4        進(jìn)行有關(guān)的判斷、推理和引申；5   

3、     根據(jù)上下文推測(cè)生詞的詞義；6        理解文章的總體結(jié)構(gòu)以及單句之間、段落之間的關(guān)系；7        理解作者的意圖、觀點(diǎn)或態(tài)度；8        區(qū)分論點(diǎn)和論據(jù)。基于對(duì)歷年考題閱讀部分的總體分析和對(duì)2005年考試閱讀部分的預(yù)測(cè)，筆者建議考生在復(fù)習(xí)時(shí)注意把握以下幾點(diǎn)：1.注重從總體把握文章，掌握作者的主要論點(diǎn)，把握文中的重要信息。拿到一篇文章，不要急于做題，而是要先判斷文章的體裁和內(nèi)容，從而縮小理解范圍。例如議論文中，作者一定會(huì)提出自己的

4、觀點(diǎn)并加以解釋和說(shuō)明，考生就應(yīng)準(zhǔn)備去理解作者如何闡述觀點(diǎn)。把握文章大意，可以從理解段落大意著手，找到段落的主題句，主題句一般位于段首或段尾。文章的作者一般都會(huì)直接或間接地表達(dá)自己的觀點(diǎn)和傾向，許多作者會(huì)通過(guò)主題句來(lái)表達(dá)自己的論點(diǎn)，或是間接地把自己的觀點(diǎn)在關(guān)鍵詞或行文的字里行間體現(xiàn)出來(lái)，考生要有意訓(xùn)練自己在這方面的能力。2.注重了解句與句、段與段之間的關(guān)系，特別是文章中的轉(zhuǎn)折關(guān)系，學(xué)會(huì)利用上下文進(jìn)行必要的判斷、推理和引申。只有掌握句段之間的關(guān)系，才能摸清作者深層思路上的邏輯關(guān)系。從句子與句子，段落與段落之間的過(guò)渡可以讀出作者整個(gè)的思路及論證過(guò)程，才能做出正確的推理、判斷或引申。平時(shí)訓(xùn)練時(shí)，考生應(yīng)

5、多注意一些過(guò)渡詞。3.積極擴(kuò)展詞匯量，注意動(dòng)詞和名詞，訓(xùn)練理解一些難句、復(fù)雜句。擴(kuò)展詞匯量的目的是避免詞匯的欠缺造成理解的失誤。動(dòng)詞作為語(yǔ)句結(jié)構(gòu)的樞紐，意義重大，可以幫助考生理解作者的思想意圖，而名詞常常是關(guān)于事實(shí)的，細(xì)節(jié)題?？嫉膬?nèi)容多與名詞有關(guān)。難句和復(fù)雜句多是具有深層含義的，學(xué)會(huì)解讀難句、復(fù)雜句須從其結(jié)構(gòu)入手。考生應(yīng)抓住難句、復(fù)雜句的主干，找出主要信息和深層含義。4.閱讀時(shí)注意速度和解題順序。建議考生先快后慢、先易后難，先略讀文章，總體上把握，再細(xì)讀搜尋答案，先解決容易的事實(shí)題再做較難的考深層含義的題。5.多閱讀時(shí)效性比較強(qiáng)的英美報(bào)刊文章。在歷年的考研閱讀文章中，時(shí)文占到相當(dāng)大的比例。在備

6、考初期就應(yīng)當(dāng)注意擴(kuò)大知識(shí)面，并熟悉此類文章的內(nèi)容、語(yǔ)言風(fēng)格和篇章結(jié)構(gòu)。一、 應(yīng)試總則翻開考研英語(yǔ)試卷的閱讀部分，考生首先應(yīng)當(dāng)掌握的最基本的應(yīng)試總則可以概括為12個(gè)字：文章思路、圈點(diǎn)到位、重疊原文。事實(shí)上這12個(gè)字已經(jīng)概括了閱讀解題的全部過(guò)程。第一步“文章思路”是指考生首先應(yīng)對(duì)文章總體的思路和結(jié)構(gòu)有一個(gè)大概的了解，先不要急于去讀題目，而是應(yīng)當(dāng)將文章從頭到尾看一遍，弄清楚文章的中心意思，這一遍閱讀的目的并不是要立即找到答題所需要的信息點(diǎn)。在閱讀的時(shí)候還要有主次之分，文章的第一段是文章的靈魂和核心，也應(yīng)當(dāng)是第一遍閱讀的重點(diǎn)所在?？忌M量將第一段的每一句話都理解透徹，因?yàn)檎莆樟说谝欢?，就已?jīng)基本了解

7、掌握了整篇文章的內(nèi)容，至于其他的段落可以加快速度，看得懂就看，看不懂就暫時(shí)跳過(guò)去，在不懂的地方做出記號(hào)，留待以后解決。讀完文章并理清思路后就可以接著閱讀試題，命題專家在設(shè)計(jì)考卷時(shí)，題目排列的次序與文章的布局基本是相吻合的，也就是說(shuō)題目所需要的信息點(diǎn)在文章中應(yīng)當(dāng)是按順序出現(xiàn)的，這一點(diǎn)對(duì)于基礎(chǔ)差的考生相當(dāng)重要，因?yàn)榭忌耆梢愿鶕?jù)每篇文章題目的題干來(lái)推測(cè)文章大致的內(nèi)容和思路。     有些考生在把握文章思路時(shí)常常會(huì)陷入困境，他們雖然也從頭到尾把文章讀了一遍，但還是搞不清文章到底在講什么。如何掃清閱讀理解中出現(xiàn)的盲點(diǎn)?筆者建議考生在第一遍閱讀時(shí)注意以下幾點(diǎn)：1

8、.        文章中有些信息可以忽略，例如有關(guān)職務(wù)、頭銜、社會(huì)地位等補(bǔ)充性說(shuō)明；2.        第一遍閱讀時(shí)，可暫時(shí)不管句中破折號(hào)后所提供的旁支信息；3.        復(fù)雜的難句看清主、謂、賓即可，其他輔助信息除非與解題有關(guān)，否則亦可暫時(shí)不管；4.        上下文中平行對(duì)稱的地方經(jīng)常內(nèi)容相同，所以這些互相對(duì)照的內(nèi)容也可幫助考生消除盲點(diǎn)；5.        做題時(shí)應(yīng)注意：因?yàn)槊}時(shí)要

9、求選項(xiàng)部分的語(yǔ)言難度要低于文章語(yǔ)言的難度，所以讀懂選項(xiàng)的語(yǔ)言常會(huì)幫助考生正確理解文章的內(nèi)容。第二步“圈點(diǎn)到位”，是就審題而言，實(shí)質(zhì)上就是要求考生審題到位，弄清楚題目針對(duì)文章的什么內(nèi)容提問(wèn)。考生在讀完題目后通常會(huì)返回到文章里去尋找答案，這時(shí)又會(huì)出現(xiàn)另一種情況，有些考生文章都看懂了，可就是找不到答案在哪里。出現(xiàn)這種情況的根本原因是考生沒(méi)有審清題意，沒(méi)有弄清楚題目要求考生在文章中尋找什么信息，因?yàn)榻^大部分題目是針對(duì)文章的具體內(nèi)容提問(wèn)。所以只要考生審題到位，返回原文搜索答案時(shí)，即可圈點(diǎn)出相應(yīng)的內(nèi)容，從而縮小尋找范圍，大大提高正確率。2000年考研試題的20道閱讀題中只有4道題目(3道主旨題，1道判斷題

10、)無(wú)法依據(jù)題干語(yǔ)言在原文中圈點(diǎn)，其他的16道題目均可根據(jù)題干命題語(yǔ)言在文中圈點(diǎn)出相應(yīng)的內(nèi)容，答案基本就在所圈語(yǔ)句的附近。所以只要能在掌握文章思路的基礎(chǔ)上做到“圈點(diǎn)到位”，基本上所有的閱讀題目都可以迎刃而解，特別是具體的細(xì)節(jié)題，可以說(shuō)是手到擒來(lái)。第三步“重疊原文”，即完成題目之后檢查所找到的答案是否正確。設(shè)計(jì)閱讀題時(shí)，選項(xiàng)通常是這樣四種情況，假設(shè)選項(xiàng)內(nèi)容是一個(gè)圓，文章內(nèi)容也是一個(gè)圓，第一種情況是兩者相距甚遠(yuǎn)，根本沒(méi)有相交的地方，內(nèi)容完全不一樣，這種選項(xiàng)很容易就被排除掉；第二種情況是這兩個(gè)圓相切，即只有很小一部分互相聯(lián)系，但會(huì)有一部分考生選這個(gè)選項(xiàng)，因?yàn)檫x項(xiàng)的內(nèi)容文中有所提及，有一定的迷惑性；第三

11、種情況是這兩個(gè)圓相交，有大部分內(nèi)容重疊，考生往往會(huì)選擇這種選項(xiàng)。較之前者，這種情況的迷惑性更大，也是最危險(xiǎn)的干擾項(xiàng)；但只有符合第四種情況，即兩個(gè)圓完全重合、內(nèi)容完全相符的選項(xiàng)才是正確答案。因此在檢查時(shí)，考生要做的就是把所選的選項(xiàng)與文章中相應(yīng)的內(nèi)容做比較，看其是否能與原文重疊。在判斷選項(xiàng)是否能重疊原文時(shí)，考生常常也會(huì)感到迷惑，無(wú)法判斷選項(xiàng)是否與原文內(nèi)容完全重疊，這是因?yàn)槊}專家在設(shè)計(jì)考題時(shí)會(huì)使用一些語(yǔ)言來(lái)迷惑考生，從而測(cè)試考生的英語(yǔ)水平和閱讀能力。一般說(shuō)來(lái)，事實(shí)上命題專家最常用的有四種方式：“語(yǔ)言簡(jiǎn)化”、“反話正說(shuō)”、“正話反說(shuō)”和“關(guān)鍵詞替換”?！罢Z(yǔ)言簡(jiǎn)化”是命題專家命題使用語(yǔ)言時(shí)所必須遵守的

12、總則。在設(shè)置選項(xiàng)時(shí)，四個(gè)選項(xiàng)的長(zhǎng)度及句法不應(yīng)有太大差異，而選項(xiàng)所使用的語(yǔ)言難度必須低于文章本身的難度。這一點(diǎn)對(duì)考生大有幫助，因?yàn)榭忌梢岳眠x項(xiàng)來(lái)理解文章。這一原則幾乎在所有的閱讀試題中都有所體現(xiàn)，故此筆者在這里就不再列舉?！胺丛捳f(shuō)”的命題方式是指選項(xiàng)用肯定的方式來(lái)表述文中用否定方式所表述的內(nèi)容。僅在2000年的考研試卷中，就有四道題目采用了這種命題方式。例“Few Americans attribute this solely to such obvious causes as a devalued dollar or the turning of the business cycle.”

13、The author seems to believe the revival of the U.S. economy in the 1990s can be attributed to the.A turning of the business cycleB restructuring of industryC improved business managementD success in education2000年54題A正確答案第三種常用的命題方式“正話反說(shuō)”，是指文中用肯定方式表述，而選項(xiàng)用否定方式表述，兩者意義相吻合。這一命題方式在近年的試卷中也可找到例證。例How many m

14、en would have considered the possibility of an apple falling up into the tree? Newton did because he was not trying to predict anything. He was just wondering. His mind was ready for the unpredictable. Unpredictability is part of the essential nature of research. If you don't have unpredictable

15、things, you don't have research. Scientists tend to forget this when writing their cut and dried reports for the technical journals, but history is filled with examples of it.The author asserts that scientists.Ashouldn't replace “scientific method” with imaginative thoughtBshouldn't negl

16、ect to speculate on unpredictable thingsCshould write more concise reports for technical journalsDshould be confident about their research findings1999年第68題B正確答案“關(guān)鍵詞替換”是出現(xiàn)最頻繁的命題方式，幾乎每年都有一些用這種方式設(shè)置的題目。例This speeding up of life, says the Futurist, receives a new form of expression. Futurists claim that

17、 we must.A increase the production of literatureB use poetry to relieve modern stressC develop new modes of expressionD avoid using adjectives and verbs2000年61題C正確答案命題專家常常采用“語(yǔ)言簡(jiǎn)化”、“反話正說(shuō)”、“正話反說(shuō)”、“關(guān)鍵詞替換”這四種方式設(shè)置考題，對(duì)考生進(jìn)行干擾?？忌诹私膺@些方式后，就可以反其道而行之，利用這四種命題方式來(lái)檢查所選選項(xiàng)是否與原文重疊?？倓t中筆者介紹了考研閱讀理解應(yīng)試的基本步驟，下面將就具體題型提出相應(yīng)的應(yīng)

18、試原則。二、 主題原則主旨題型又叫主題原則，主要針對(duì)文章主題設(shè)問(wèn)，考查考生對(duì)通篇文章的理解和把握，但是要特別注意和下面這種題型區(qū)分開來(lái)。筆者建議考生在做主題題型時(shí)遵循這樣的原則：因?yàn)榇祟愵}干擾性最大，難度也最大，考生須讀完全文才能準(zhǔn)確把握文章主題。所以考生拿到這種題時(shí)，不要急于去找答案，不論其出現(xiàn)在什么位置都把它作為最后一道題來(lái)做，因?yàn)樵谧隽硗馊李}時(shí)，無(wú)疑有助于加深對(duì)整個(gè)文章的理解。而且，事實(shí)上，首先做主旨題，考生往往還會(huì)回過(guò)頭來(lái)核查答案，這樣耗時(shí)間，做題效率低。主題題型分為以下兩種。1.明確的主題題型此類題型位置較為固定，一般是第一個(gè)問(wèn)題或最后一個(gè)問(wèn)題，要求考生為文章選擇合適的標(biāo)題或是總結(jié)

19、文章的中心思想。此類題型相對(duì)難度較小。例If you intend using humor in your talk to make people smile, you must know how to identify shared experiences and problems. Your humor must be relevant to the audience and should help to show them that you are one of them or that you understand their situation and are in sympathy

20、 with their point of view. Depending on whom you are addressing, the problems will be different. If you are talking to a group of managers, you may refer to the disorganized methods of their secretaries; alternatively if you are addressing secretaries, you may want to comment on their disorganized b

21、osses.Here is an example, which I heard at a nurses' convention, of a story which works well because the audience all shared the same view of doctors. A man arrives in heaven and is being shown around by St. Peter. He sees wonderful accommodations, beautiful gardens, sunny weather, and so on. Ev

22、eryone is very peaceful, polite and friendly until, waiting in a line for lunch, the new arrival is suddenly pushed aside by a man in a white coat, who rushes to the head of the line, grabs his food and stomps over to a table by himself. “Who is that?” the new arrival asked St. Peter. “Oh, that'

23、s God” came the reply, “but sometimes he thinks he's a doctor.”If you are part of the group which you are addressing, you will be in a position to know the experiences and problems which are common to all of you and it'll be appropriate for you to make a passing remark about the inedible can

24、teen food or the chairman's notorious bad taste in ties. With other audiences you mustn't attempt to cut in with humor as they will resent an outsider making disparaging remarks about their canteen or their chairman. You will be on safer ground if you stick to scapegoat like the Post Office

25、or the telephone system.If you feel awkward being humorous, you must practice so that it becomes more natural. Include a few casual and apparently off_the_cuff remarks which you can deliver in a relaxed and unforced manner. Often it's the delivery which causes the audience to smile, so speak slo

26、wly and remember that a raised eyebrow or an unbelieving look may help to show that you are making a lighthearted remark.Look for the humor. It often comes from the unexpected. A twist on a familiar quote “If at first you don't succeed, give up” or a play on words or on a situation. Search for e

27、xaggeration and understatements. Look at your talk and pick out a few words or sentences which you can turn about and inject with humor.The best title for the text may be .A Use Humor EffectivelyB Various Kinds of HumorC Add Humor to SpeechD Different Humor Strategies2002年45題A正確答案2.隱蔽的主題題型這類題型在設(shè)問(wèn)時(shí)較為

28、隱蔽，不像明確的主題題型會(huì)直接問(wèn)“文章的主題是什么”，而且位置也很隨意，不會(huì)固定在第一道或最后一道。下列例題即為隱蔽的主題題型經(jīng)常出現(xiàn)的形式，考生應(yīng)熟悉此類題型的語(yǔ)言形式，以利于審題時(shí)準(zhǔn)確判斷題型。例When it comes to the slowing economy, Ellen Spero isn't biting her nails just yet. But the 47_year_old manicurist isn't cutting, filing or polishing as many nails as she'd like to, either.

29、 Most of her clients spend $12 to $50 weekly, but last month two longtime customers suddenly stopped showing up. Spero blames the softening economy. “I'm a good economic indicator,” she says, “I provide a service that people can do without when they're concerned about saving some dollars.” S

30、o Spero is downscaling, shopping at middle_brow Dillard's department store near her suburban Cleveland home, instead of Neiman Marcus. “I don't know if other clients are going to abandon me, too.” She says.Even before Alan Greenspan's admission that America's red_hot economy is cooli

31、ng, lots of working folks had already seen signs of the slowdown themselves. From car dealerships to Gap outlets, sales have been lagging for months as shoppers temper their spending. For retailers, who last year took in 24 percent of their revenue between Thanksgiving and Christmas, the cautious ap

32、proach is coming at a crucial time. Already, experts say, holiday sales are off 7 percent from last year's pace. But don't sound any alarms just yet. Consumers seem only mildly concerned, not panicked, and many say they remain optimistic about the economy's long_term prospects even as th

33、ey do some modest belt_tightening.Consumers say they're not in despair because, despite the dreadful headlines, their own fortunes still feel pretty good. Home prices are holding steady in most regions. In Manhattan, “there's a new gold rush happening in the $4 million to $10 million range,

34、predominantly fed by Wall Street bonuses,” says broker Barbara Corcoran. In San Francisco, prices are still rising even as frenzied overbidding quiets. “Instead of 20 to 30 offers, now maybe you only get two or three," says John Tealdi, a Bay Area real_estate broker. And most folks still feel p

35、retty comfortable about their ability to find and keep a job.Many folks see silver linings to this slowdown. Potential home buyers would cheer for lower interest rates. Employers wouldn't mind a litter fewer bubbles in the job market. Many consumers seem to have been influenced by stock_market s

36、wings, which investors now view as a necessary ingredient to a sustained boom. Diners might see an upside, too.  Getting a table at Manhattan's hot new Alain Ducasses restaurant used to be impossible. Not anymore. For that, Greenspan&Co. may still be worth toasting.To which of the

37、following is the author likely to agree?A A new boom, on the horizon.B Tighten the belt, the single remedy.C Caution all right, panic not.D The more ventures, the more chance.2004年55題C正確答案三、態(tài)度原則命題專家命題時(shí)，為了驗(yàn)證考生到底有沒(méi)有讀懂文章，會(huì)就整個(gè)文章或某個(gè)語(yǔ)言區(qū)域相對(duì)較為主觀的態(tài)度設(shè)問(wèn)。作者態(tài)度題有兩種題型：1.        文章作者態(tài)度題這種題目對(duì)考生而言

38、難度較大，迷惑性也較強(qiáng)，因?yàn)槊}專家是針對(duì)整篇文章設(shè)問(wèn)，考生很難找到具體對(duì)應(yīng)的語(yǔ)言點(diǎn)，所以要把握整篇文章。例如作者在談一件事時(shí)是用反諷的口氣，還是贊成的語(yǔ)氣，此類題所給的答案選項(xiàng)一般是四個(gè)形容詞，考生應(yīng)在審題時(shí)就把握好這四個(gè)形容詞所表達(dá)的意思，然后返回文章去尋找感覺(jué)。特別提醒考生要牢記所遇到的構(gòu)成作者態(tài)度題選項(xiàng)的每一個(gè)形容詞。做文章作者態(tài)度題時(shí)，千萬(wàn)不要把考生自己的態(tài)度揉進(jìn)文章中，同時(shí)要注意區(qū)分作者本人的態(tài)度與作者引用的觀點(diǎn)態(tài)度。文章作者態(tài)度是作者說(shuō)話的口氣(tone)，不是考某一個(gè)語(yǔ)言點(diǎn)，而是文章中數(shù)個(gè)語(yǔ)言點(diǎn)串起來(lái)的一根線給讀者的整體感覺(jué)。例Could the bad old days of

39、 economic decline be about to return? Since OPEC agreed to supply_cuts in March, the price of crude oil has jumped to almost $26 a barrel, up from less than $10 last December. This near_tripling of oil prices calls up scary memories of the 1973 oil shock, when prices quadrupled, and 19791980, when t

40、hey also almost tripled. Both previous shocks resulted in double_digit inflation and global economic decline. So where are the headlines warning of gloom and doom this time?The oil price was given another push up this week when Iraq suspended oil exports. Strengthening economic growth, at the same t

41、ime as winter grips the northern hemisphere, could push the price higher still in the short term.Yet there are good reasons to expect the economic consequences now to be less severe than in the 1970s. In most countries the cost of crude oil now accounts for a smaller share of the price of petrol tha

42、n it did in the 1970s. In Europe, taxes account for up to four_fifths of the retail price, so even quite big changes in the price of crude have a more muted effect on pump prices than in the past.Rich economies are also less dependent on oil than they were, and so less sensitive to swings in the oil

43、 price. Energy conservation, a shift to other fuels and a decline in the importance of heavy, energy_intensive industries have reduced oil consumption. Software, consultancy and mobile telephones use far less oil than steel or car production. For each dollar of GDP (in constant prices) rich economie

44、s now use nearly 50% less oil than in 1973. The OECD estimates in its latest Economic Outlook that, if oil prices average $22 a barrel for a full year, compared with $13 in 1998, this would increase the oil import bill in rich economies by only 0.25%-0.5% of GDP. That is less than one_quarter of the

45、 income loss in 1974 or 1980. On the other hand, oil_importing emerging economiesto which heavy industry has shiftedhave become more energy_intensive, and so could be more seriously squeezed.One more reason not to lose sleep over the rise in oil prices is that, unlike the rises in the 1970s, it has

46、not occurred against the backbone of general commodity_price inflation and global excess demand. A sizable portion of the world is only just emerging from economic decline. The Economist's commodity price index is broadly unchanging from a year ago. In 1973 commodity prices jumped by 70%, and in

47、 1979 by almost 30%.From the text we can see that the writer seems .A optimisticB sensitiveC gloomyD scared2002年55題A正確答案2.        局部作者態(tài)度題此類題目考查考生對(duì)局部細(xì)節(jié)所體現(xiàn)出的作者態(tài)度的理解，因此做此類題時(shí)，考生不能再像前一種態(tài)度題一樣去找“感覺(jué)”，而應(yīng)當(dāng)回到文章局部上，落到實(shí)處。例In the last half of the nineteenth century, “capital” and “l(fā)abour” were

48、 enlarging and perfecting their rival organisations on modern lines. Many an old firm was replaced by a limited liability company with a bureaucracy of salaried managers. The change met the technical requirements of the new age by engaging a large professional element and prevented the decline in ef

49、ficiency that so commonly spoiled the fortunes of family firms in the second and third generation after the energetic founders. It was moreover a step away from individual initiative, towards collectivism and municipal and state_owned business. The railway companies, though still private business ma

50、naged for the benefit of shareholders, were very unlike old family business!At the same time the great municipalities went into business to supply lighting, trams and other services to the taxpayers.The growth of the limited liability company and municipal business had important consequences. Such l

51、arge, impersonal manipulation of capital and industry greatly increased the numbers and importance of shareholders as a class, an element in national life representing irresponsible wealth detached from the land and the duties of the landowners; and almost equally detached from the responsible manag

52、ement of business. All through the nineteenth century, America, Africa, India, Australia and parts of Europe were being developed by British capital, and British shareholders were thus enriched by the world's movement towards  industrialisation. Towns like Bournemouth and Eastbourne sp

53、rang up to house large “comfortable” classes who had retired on their incomes, and who had no relation to the rest of the community except that of drawing dividends and occasionally attending a shareholders' meeting to dictate their orders to the management. On the other hand “shareholding” mean

54、t leisure and freedom which was used by many of the later Victorians for the highest purpose of a great civilisation.The “shareholders” as such had no knowledge of the lives, thoughts or needs of the workmen employed by the company in which they held shares, and their influence on the relations of c

55、apital and labour was not good. The paid manager acting for the company was in more direct relation with the men and their demands, but even he had seldom that familiar personal knowledge of the workmen which the employer had often had under the more patriarchal system of the old family business now

56、 passing away. Indeed the mere size of operations and the numbers of workmen involved rendered such personal relations impossible. Fortunately, however, the increasing power and organisation of the trade unions, at least in all skilled trades, enabled the workmen to meet on equal terms the managers

57、of the companies who employed them. The cruel discipline of the strike and lockout taught the two parties to respect each other's strength and understand the value of fair negotiation.The author is most critical of .A family firm ownersB landownersC managersD shareholders1996年62題D正確答案在談到family f

58、irm owners 時(shí)，作者只是說(shuō)：“通過(guò)雇用一大批專業(yè)人員，這一變化適應(yīng)了新時(shí)代的技術(shù)要求，防止了效率的下降。而效率的下降通常是家族公司在精力充沛的創(chuàng)立者之后的第二三代破產(chǎn)的原因。”這是很客觀的表述，在談到landowners時(shí)說(shuō)：“對(duì)資本與企業(yè)的如此大規(guī)模的非個(gè)人運(yùn)作大大增加了作為一個(gè)階層的持股人的數(shù)量及地位的重要性。國(guó)民生活中這一現(xiàn)象的出現(xiàn)代表了不由個(gè)人負(fù)責(zé)的財(cái)富與土地及土地所有者的義務(wù)的分離，這也在同樣程度上意味著（不由個(gè)人負(fù)責(zé)的財(cái)富）與經(jīng)營(yíng)管理責(zé)任的分離?！币彩呛芸陀^的表述，沒(méi)有表明自己的態(tài)度。C選項(xiàng)在原文中有兩處提及，但都是指帶薪經(jīng)理，對(duì)經(jīng)理并沒(méi)有進(jìn)行任何批評(píng)性評(píng)論，因而也不符合題意。只有D選項(xiàng)對(duì)應(yīng)原文中The “shareholders” as such had no knowledge of the lives, thoughts or needs of the workm