英語語法 大學(xué)必修

1、ContentsOn Grammar1Lecture 1 Introduction: Grammatical Hierarchy1Lecture 2 Basic Clause Types1Lecture 3 Subjectverb Concord1Lecture 4 Noun and Noun Phrase1§1. Gender1§2. Number1§3. Unit Nouns1§4. Genitives1Lecture 5 Determiners1§1. Collocations of Determiners1§2. Usage

2、of Some Determiners1§3. Articles1Lecture 6 Pronouns1§1. Pronoun Concord1§2. Case1§3. Reflexive Pronouns1§4. Generic Use of Personal Pronouns1Lecture 7 Verb and Verb Phrase1§1. Classification of Verbs1§2. A Survey of Tense, Aspect, Voice and Mood1Lecture 8 Tense and

3、 Aspect1Lecture 9 Future Time1Lecture 10 Voice1Lecture 11 Mood1Lecture 12 Modal Auxiliaries1Lecture 13 Non-finite Verb1§1. Infinitive1§2. ing Participle1§3. ed Participle1§4. Non-finite Clause1§5. Dangling Participle1§6. Absolute Construction1Lecture 14 Adjectiveand Adj

4、ective Phrase1Lecture 15 Adverb and Adverb Phrase1Lecture 16 Comparison and Comparative Constructions1Lecture 17 Preposition and Prepositional Phrase1Lecture 18 Statement, Question, Command, Exclamation1§1. Statements1Lecture 19 Relative Clause1Lecture 20 Conditional Sentence1Lecture 21 Inversi

5、on1Bibliography1On Grammar關(guān)于語法課一、 外語語法教學(xué)的意義1. 教育的第一功能是教授已有的知識(shí)，運(yùn)用到外語教學(xué)上，就是向?qū)W生傳授語法知識(shí)，使其在實(shí)際的語言閱讀和理解過程中省去大量的時(shí)間；2. 教育的第二功能是訓(xùn)練學(xué)習(xí)者的社會(huì)能力，語言教學(xué)就意味著教會(huì)他們?nèi)绾握_地使用適當(dāng)?shù)恼Z言形式來完成一些社會(huì)任務(wù)，如問路、告別、請(qǐng)求等；3. 教育的第三個(gè)功能是培養(yǎng)學(xué)習(xí)者個(gè)人的素質(zhì)和能力。體現(xiàn)在語言教學(xué)上，就是遵循個(gè)人語言能力的自然發(fā)展過程，盡量提供適當(dāng)?shù)淖匀画h(huán)境，使學(xué)生的語言習(xí)慣和能力在自然過程中形成。二、 外語語法學(xué)習(xí)的目的：外語語法學(xué)習(xí)的目的不是為了熟記外語語法的條條框框，而

6、是為了更好地進(jìn)行聽、說、讀、寫，學(xué)習(xí)外語語法是為培養(yǎng)外語運(yùn)用能力而服務(wù)的，是為了幫助學(xué)習(xí)者利用語言知識(shí)，提高外語的聽、說、讀、寫能力。外語語法起的只是工具作用。三、 外語語法教學(xué)的目的：外語語法教學(xué)的目的就是為了讓學(xué)生掌握必要的語法規(guī)則，為學(xué)生言語能力的提高打下基礎(chǔ)，為培養(yǎng)聽、說、讀、寫能力服務(wù)。四、 學(xué)習(xí)語法的方法和原則1. 善于自己發(fā)現(xiàn)錯(cuò)誤。2. 一定要背會(huì)、記熟語法規(guī)則。3. 避免重復(fù)錯(cuò)誤，盡量弄明白為什么一直犯同類錯(cuò)誤。4. 多實(shí)踐，勤復(fù)習(xí)。5. 學(xué)語法要耐心，下苦功，但不可操之過急。參考閱讀：英語語法是英語專業(yè)的一門必修課程。語法是語言的組織規(guī)律，它是關(guān)于詞的形態(tài)變化和用詞造句的規(guī)則

7、。學(xué)生在綜合英語課中雖然已學(xué)過一些英語語法的基礎(chǔ)知識(shí)，但缺乏系統(tǒng)性和完整性，本課程的目的就是幫助學(xué)生掌握比較系統(tǒng)和完整的傳統(tǒng)英語語法知識(shí)，并運(yùn)用語法規(guī)律去指導(dǎo)語言實(shí)踐，提高運(yùn)用英語的交際能力，本課程除了介紹英語語法的基本結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)律外，還強(qiáng)調(diào)理論聯(lián)系實(shí)際。配合足夠的口筆頭練習(xí)，加強(qiáng)語言的基本訓(xùn)練。基本要求是：要學(xué)求生對(duì)傳統(tǒng)英語語法的基本結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)律有一個(gè)比較完整明確的概念，把已學(xué)過的語言知識(shí)系統(tǒng)化。要求學(xué)生能較熟練地運(yùn)用傳統(tǒng)英語語法的基本規(guī)則去分析講解各種語法現(xiàn)象，以便在今后的實(shí)踐中提高自己的業(yè)務(wù)水平與教學(xué)能力。 學(xué)習(xí)英語語法的目的：要回答這個(gè)問題，先簡要討論一下要不要學(xué)習(xí)英語語法的問題。這個(gè)問題，答

8、案也許是很清楚的。主張英語語法可以不學(xué)的人往往這樣說：我們中國人，如果智力正常，從小就會(huì)說漢語，能遣詞造句，沒見過哪個(gè)小孩先學(xué)語法再學(xué)話的。再說，英語講得多了，有了語感，語法還不是水到渠成的事。這種實(shí)踐出真知的說法，絕對(duì)是正確的。但我仍主張學(xué)一點(diǎn)英語語法。本人沒受過很好的教育，更不懂高深的語言學(xué)理論，但一直有這樣的看法：在我們中國，百年都沒有營造出正常情況下用正式英語交際的大氛圍和小氛圍，所以難以在投入產(chǎn)出比符合經(jīng)濟(jì)效益的前提下培養(yǎng)出一定的英語語感。語法，實(shí)際上就是給你語言整體上的語感（規(guī)則），既給你能解釋語言現(xiàn)象的魚，又教你如何用語感去釣語言深層的魚。何樂而不為呢？說到這，學(xué)習(xí)英語語法的目的

9、也就清清楚楚了：彌補(bǔ)氛圍難以在短期內(nèi)培養(yǎng)一定語感的缺憾，比較經(jīng)濟(jì)地獲得英語整體的語感。當(dāng)然，也為通過我們這個(gè)考試大國的眾多英語測(cè)試提供初級(jí)“抱佛腳”的方法。學(xué)習(xí)英語語法的范圍：學(xué)習(xí)英語語法的范圍，指的是學(xué)習(xí)英語語法需掌握的內(nèi)容程度。既然我們學(xué)習(xí)英語語法的目的那么簡單實(shí)際，到啥山唱啥歌吧。范圍不必很大，也就是說面不宜太寬，點(diǎn)也不宜研究太深，畢竟需要用英語說之乎者也的人不多。另外，我認(rèn)為通過學(xué)習(xí)英語語法，求得對(duì)英語的整體感覺非常重要。有了整體感，可以揭開英語的神秘面紗，知道了對(duì)手的模樣，就知己知彼了；有了整體感，對(duì)語言就有了“君臨天下”之氣，加之不懈的積累，從掌握語法的必然王國，進(jìn)而出入語言的自由

10、王國。出于這種考慮，這個(gè)講義編得非常簡單，有些方面甚至還不如高中所學(xué)的內(nèi)容，但實(shí)用語法的基本脈絡(luò)比較清晰。學(xué)習(xí)英語語法的方法：英語語法書很多，學(xué)習(xí)英語語法的方法也不少。學(xué)好一樣?xùn)|西，本沒有絕對(duì)好的方法。號(hào)稱包治百病的醫(yī)生，要么是庸醫(yī)，要么是騙子。事實(shí)上，每個(gè)人可以根據(jù)自己的實(shí)際情況，在不斷嘗試中摸索出適合自己的方法。依我這個(gè)半路出家的人看來，不管用什么方法學(xué)英語語法，進(jìn)而學(xué)英語語言，一是要有整體語感，要學(xué)會(huì)歸納和演繹，由此及彼；三是要借助對(duì)母語的了解，琢磨漢語和英語的異同之處，轉(zhuǎn)而進(jìn)行兩種語言之間的由此及彼。比如：學(xué)了wish的賓語可以用不定式，可以推理出名詞wish的定語、表語也有可能是不定

11、式。是還是不是？一查詞典便知。漢語的“討論”一詞用動(dòng)詞短語作賓語，中間一般要加個(gè)wh-詞，如能說“討論如何學(xué)習(xí)英語”，不能說“討論學(xué)習(xí)英語”。英語里的discuss用不定式作賓語是否也是如此呢？英語中類似的詞是否是同樣情況呢？花點(diǎn)時(shí)間就解決問題。對(duì)語言的分析能力，實(shí)際上以對(duì)語言的整體語感為基礎(chǔ)的，更是以對(duì)語言完整的整體語感為目的的。說到底，語言不就是規(guī)律和例外的組合嗎？！兩三年積累下來，你就是語法高手。Lecture 1 Introduction: Grammatical HierarchyI. Grammar1. Grammar is the structural system of a l

12、anguage.2. Grammar is the pivot combining the phonetic system (or the literal system in writing) and the semantic system.Semantic system grammar phonetic / literal system3. Grammatical Hierarchy:1) Morpheme: the lowest rank2) Word3) Phrase4) Clause5) Sentence: the highest rankEach rank is composed o

13、f one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank.II. MorphemesThe morpheme is the minimum or smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speechMorphemeFree MorphemeBound MorphemeAffixInflectional AffixDerivational AffixPrefixSuffix:1. Free morphemes1) A free

14、 morpheme has a complete meaning and can stand by itself as a simple word.e.g boy, girl, desk, chair, kind, cruel, give, take2) Function:a. simple words: boy, girl, desk, chair, kind, cruel, give, takeb. roots: kindness, unkind, friendship, friendlessc. compound words: bookmark bookshop bookworm gir

15、lfriend2. Bound morphemes1) A bound morpheme itself doesnt have a complete meaning and cannot stand by itself. It must be attached to some other form.2) Function: affixesa. Inflectional affixes: word endings that express only grammatical informationa) pl.: -s / -esb) the genitive: -sc) third person

16、singular: -s /-esd) past time: -ede) participle: -ed /-ingf) comparison: er /-estb. Derivational affixes: prefix and suffixa) Prefix: attached before a rooti. The function of a prefix tends to be semantically oriented, that is, it adds new meaning to a root. ii. Though the vast majority of prefixes

17、do not change the original word class, there are prefixes that are class-changing:a-: forms adjectives from nouns or verbs ablaze, asleep, awashbe-: forms verbs from adjectives or nouns becalm, befriendem- /en-: forms verbs from adjectives or nouns embitter, enlarge,b) Suffix: attached after a basei

18、. basically class-changing morphemesii. Exceptions: -ful spoonful, colorful-ship friendship-ism idealism-er Londoner, reader-hood childhood,3) AllomorphThe variants of the same morpheme in different contexts are called “allomorphs”. They may take different phonological or orthographical forms.in- /

19、im- / il- / ir-: inactive immature illegal irregular-s / -es: cats /s/ dogs /z/ horses /iz/WordOpen ClassClosed ClassMarginal ClassNounAdjectiveAdverbMain VerbPrepositionPronounDeterminerConjunctionAuxiliary VerbCardinal NumeralOrdinal NumeralInterjectionGrammatical FunctionWord FormationSimple Word

20、Compound WordDerivativeIII. Words1. classification in terms of grammatical function:1) closed-class words: all the function wordsa. with no complete lexical meaning but with grammatical meaningb. limited number, fixed membershipc. preposition, pronoun, determiner, conjunction, auxiliary verb2) open-

21、class words: content wordsa. indefinitely extendable itemsb. new items are constantly being createdc. old items are constantly giving place to new onesd. noun, adjective, adverb, main verb3) marginal classa. cardinal numeralb. ordinal numeralc. interjection2. classification in terms of word-formatio

22、n1) simple words: a. also called morpheme words, b. consist of only one free morphemec. mostly are short words, small in number, but with high frequencies of appearance and strong abilities of derivationd. the main part of English basic vocabulary2) derivatives: consist of a root and derivational af

23、fixes3) compounds: consist of two or more free morphemesa. compound noun: deadline snowfall handbookb. compound adjective: bitter-sweet light-blue world-famousc. compound verb: outline sightsee nicknamed. compound adverb: moreover neverthelesse. compound pronoun: another something anybody whateverf.

24、 compound conjunction: whenever wherever whereasg. compound preposition: alongside outside throughout notwithstandingIV. Phrases1. The phrase is a group of words organized in a specific way with a key word as its head.2. The word class of the head determines the class of the phrase and the way in wh

25、ich the words are organized.1) The noun phrase(determiner) + (premodifier) + noun + (postmodifier)Milton lived in the 17th century.all the college studentshis new book on phonology2) The verb phrasea. Simple verb phrase(modifier) + main verbShe looks pale.They fully appreciate our problems.b. Comple

26、x verb phraseAuxiliary(or auxiliaries) + (modifier) + main verbIt is getting dark.She ought to have told him about it.Joan will certainly object and so will Mary.c. Finite verb phraseinitiated by a finite form, i.e. a verb form that changes according to tense or subjectd. Non-finite verb phraseIniti

27、ated by a non-finite form, i.e. a verb form that does not change according to tense or subjectWe went there to see a film.Having seen the film we had a discussion.Painted by a famous artist the portrait is invaluable.3) The adjective phrase(modifier) + adjective + (postmodifier / complementation)The

28、 weather is fine today.The course is pretty difficult.That work is too difficult for that child.Ill be glad to help you repair the car.4) The adverb phrase(modifier) + adverb + (postmodifier)Dont act so lowly.She spoke very clearly indeed.He spoke loudly.5) The prepositional phrase(modifier) + prepo

29、sition + complementationDo you think you can borrow some money from your friend?They followed close behind me.V. ClausesA full-fledged clause is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of “subject + predicate”.1. Clause elements1) Subject + predicatea. subject: a) The subject

30、 is the topic or theme of the sentence, which tells of what the sentence is about.b) The subject is generally realized by a noun phrase or an equivalent of noun phrase.b. predicate: a) The predicate says something about the subject and bears the new information which the speaker or writer wants to t

31、ransmit to the listener or reader.b) The predicate generally consists of a verb phrase with or without complementationSubjectPredicateHenryis the most studious in the class.All the menhave done their best.Mr Carterwill investigate further.Jennies paintingswere judged inferior to WandasSmoking cigare

32、ttescauses trouble in the lungs2) Sentence Analysisa. Divide the predicate into predicate verb, object, complement and adverbial.clauseSubjectPredicatePredicate VerbObjectComplementAdverbial Eg: All the men have done their best.SentenceClauseNPVPSubjectPredicate VerbNPAll the menhave donetheir best.

33、Objectb. Divide the predicate into two parts: the operator and the predicationclauseSubjectPredicateOperatorPredicationa) the operator: usually the auxiliary or the first auxiliary in a complex verb phraseb) the predication: comprises the main verb with its complementation (object, complement or adv

34、erbial)Eg: All the men have done their best.SubjectOperatorPredicateAll the menhave SentenceClausedone their best.Predication2. Classification:1) independent and dependent clausesa. independent clause: a clause that can stand by itself and act as a complete utteranceHe knows everything about it.That

35、 hat does not fit; try another.b. dependent clause: a clause that forms only part of another clause or of a phraseI dont think he knows everything about it.If that hat does not fit, try another.2) simple and complex clausesa. simple clause: a clause that consists of only one construction of “subject

36、 + predicate”It is not true.b. complex clause: a clause that comprises another clause or other clauses as its element or elementsWhat you said is not true.3) main and subordinate clausesa. main clause: a clause that takes another clause as its elementb. subordinate clause: a clause that forms part o

37、f the main clauseTom knows everything.PredicatePred. VObj.Subj.ClauseSimpleIndependentI think Tom knows everything.PredicateObj.Subj.Pred. VPred. VSubj.Clause1Obj.Clause2SimpleDependentSubordinateComplexIndependentPredicateMain4) finite and non-finite clausesa. finite clause: a clause with a finite

38、verb phrase as its predicate verb or predicatorb. non-finite clause: a clause with a non-finite verb phrase as its predicatorI signed the paper to get the license.Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat.5) verbless clausesa clause that is marked by the absence of any form of verb elementA verbless

39、 clause is just a construction of “subject + predicate” without any form of verb element.Hungry and exhausted, the climbers returned.One of the most popular tourist sites in Italy, Pompeii was viewed by nearly two million visitors last year.Christmas then only days away, the family was pent up with

40、excitement.VI. SentencesA sentence is a grammatical unit that can stand by itself and perform a communicative function.1. full and minor sentences1) full sentence: a sentence with an expressed subject and predicate2) minor sentence: a sentence fragmentWhen did he arrive? Last night.No smoking!Help!2

41、. simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentences1) simple sentence: a sentence that comprises only one independent clauseThe students have made better grades in the past few weeks.The students I teach have made better grades in the past few weeks.2) complex sentence: an independent clause

42、that comprises one or more dependent clauses as its element(s)The students would have made better grades if they had studied hard.Tom knows everything.PredicatePred. VObj.Subj.ClauseSimpleIndependentSentenceSimpleI think Tom knows everything.PredicateObj.Subj.Pred. VPred. VSubj.Clause1Obj.Clause2Dep

43、endentPredicateSentenceComplex3) compound sentence: a sentence that consists of two or more coordinated independent clausesMiss Lindstorm came to the party, but Mr and Mrs Sherman did not.I know nothing, but Tom knows everything.PredicatePred. VObj.Subj.Clause2PredicatePred. VObj.Subj.Clause1Compoun

44、dSentence4) compound-complex sentence: a sentence that consists of two or more coordinated independent clauses with at least one complex clauseThey watched television and enjoyed themselves immensely, but we couldnt see the program because our television was broken.I know nothing but I think Tom kno

45、ws everything.PredicateObj.Subj.Pred. VPred. VSubj.Clause2Obj.Clause3PredicatePredicatePred. VObj.Subj.Clause1SentenceCompound-complexLecture 2 Basic Clause TypesI. Basic clause elements:1. Subject:1) the them or the topic of a clause2) a NP or an equivalent of NP (pronoun, -ing, infinitive, nominal

46、 clause)3) the doer2. Predicate verb:1) linking verb: followed by a subject complementbe, smell, become, turn, sound, etc.This dish smells delicious.be used as a linking verb or an auxiliary?He is a teacher.He is teaching.2) intransitive verb: do not require an objectDaffodils bloom in early spring.

47、He is running.3) transitive verb: must be followed by objectsa. monotransitive verbb. complex transitive verbc. ditransitive verb3. Object: the doee1) Direct object2) Indirect object4. Complement:1) Subject complement: following a linking verb, relates to the subject2) Object complement: following a

48、n object, relates to the objectHe is a teacher.We made him our teacher.5. Adverbial:1) Adjuncts: denote the time, place, manner, purpose, cause, result, condition, concession, and accompanying circumstances concerned with the action, process or state denoted by the verbRecently they had an accident.

49、He always drives carefully.The porter will take your luggage upstairs.Though they knew the war was lost, they continued fighting.2) Disjuncts: expresses an evaluation of, or comment on, what is being said with respect to the form of the communication or to its meaningFrankly, I can do nothing about

50、it.Briefly, she didnt want to speak to him.3) Conjuncts: function as connectives between phrases, clauses or sentencesDo it now. Otherwise, it will be too late.Tom hasnt arrived yet. He may, however, come later.They have their umbrellas up; therefore, it must be raining.Strictly speaking, it is only

51、 the adjunct that can be rightly labeled an adverbial, which is generally treated as one of the five elements of a clause.II. Basic clause types:1. SVC: the main verb is a linking or copula verb which must be followed by a subject complementThe man is a teacher.He looks fine.Dinner is at six oclock.

52、2. SV: the main verb is an intransitive verb which is not to be followed by any obligatory element Iron rusts.Everybody laughed.3. SVO: the main verb is a monotransitive which must be followed by an object.I want a ticket.Liverpool won the game.4. SVOC: the main verb is a complex transitive verb whi

53、ch must be followed by an object + object complementWe made him our spokesman.They elected him president.The implied relationship between the object and the object complement canbe expressed by means of a corresponding SVC sentence with a copular verb“be”if the object complement is acurrent attribut

54、e and “become”if it is a resultingattribute We find them very pleasant. (They are verypleasant.)Carol made Joshua and Peter her assistants. (Joshua and Peter became her assistants.)5. SVoO: the main verb is a ditransitive verb which is to be followed by two objects: indirect and direct objectI sent

55、him a telegram. (I sent a telegram to him.)Mary lent me her car. (Mary lent her car to me.)6. SVA: the main verb is from a limited number of intransitive verbs which require an obligatory adverbialI live in Beijing.They lived in a hotel.7. SVOA: the main verb is one of some monotransitives which must be followed by an object and an obligatory adverbialI put the material evidence in front of him.He treated her widely.Compare SVCSVHe is a clever boy.He is running fast.Compare: SVSVA; SVOSVOAIron rusts slowly.I live in Beijing.I want a ticket very much.I put the material evidence in front of h