第一章語言學(xué)導(dǎo)論

1、第一章-語言學(xué)導(dǎo)論第一章語言學(xué)導(dǎo)論Chapterl Invitations to LinguisticsLinguistics is nowadays coming into wide usewith comb in ati onwelldiscipli nes.Lin guistics applicati on.of theories andasgreatlin guisticspractice asand otheris of人工智能，use with人機(jī)對話，very wide機(jī)器翻譯The research of linguistics has already gone beyond

2、Ianguage itself.Definition of LinguisticsHow do you defi ne lin guistics? What is lin guistics?Lin guistics can be defi ned as the scie ntific or systematic study of Ian guage. It is a science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of human Ian guage.What are w

3、e going to lear n about lin guistics?1. It is gen erally agreed that lin guistics should in clude at least five parameters, n amely, pho no logical, morphological, syn tactic, sema ntic and pragmatic. These can be called microli nguistics.語音學(xué)(phonetics);音系學(xué)(phonology);形態(tài)學(xué) (morphology); 句法學(xué)(syntax) S

4、chools of Modern Linguistics現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)流派；語義學(xué) (semantics); 語用學(xué)(pragmatics) (chapter2-6)2. Macroli nguisticsin terdiscipli narylearningSaussure, father of modern linguistics(現(xiàn)代語 言學(xué)之父)were intended to establish the aut onomy of lin guistics, giv ing it a well-defi ned subject of study and freeing it from re

5、liance on other discipli nes. However, the in teractive links between linguistics and other sciences are develop ing fast.盡管索緒爾的目的是給予語言學(xué)自主性，給它定義明確的研究對象，將它從對其他學(xué)科的依賴 中解放出來。然而，隨著時間的推移，語言學(xué)和 其他學(xué)科的聯(lián)系越來越密切。Psycholi nguisticsPsycholi nguistics, as implied by the n ame, is the study of psychological aspects

6、of Ianguage. It usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of Ian guage.心理語言學(xué)，顧名思義，是對語言的心理方面 的研究，它通常研究的是與語言使用相關(guān)的心理 狀態(tài)和心理活動。比如語言習(xí)得，語言的理解， 語言的生成等等。(chapter 9/chapter11)Socioli nguisticsSociolinguistics, as implied by the name, attempts to show the relati on sh

7、ip betwee n Ian guage and society.Sociolinguistics attempts to look at Ianguage structures by pay ing atte nti on to Ian guage use in a social con text and on the other hand tries to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking comm un ity.這就是社會與語言的關(guān)系，一方面

8、通過社會語 境中語言使用情況的調(diào)查了解語言結(jié)構(gòu)的問題， 另一方面又通過語言現(xiàn)象的分析了解社會構(gòu)成 的問題。Research Focus1Cross-cultural Comm uni cati onThere exists a close relati on shipbetwee nIan guage and culture.Lan guageis anindispensable carrier of culture. Culture finds a better represe ntati on through Ian guage use.語言是文化的載體，具有不可替代的重要性； 文化通過語

9、言得以凸現(xiàn)，其表現(xiàn)力得到充分展 示。心理學(xué)家羅杰斯(Rogers,1961),真正的交流建 立在理解基礎(chǔ)上的傾聽。An thropological Lin guistics 人類語言學(xué)An thropologicallin guistsarein terestedprimarily in the history and structure of formerly un writte n Ian guages. They are concerned with the emerge nee of Ian guage and also with the diverge nee of Ian guag

10、es over thousands of years. They start with the comparis on of con temporary Ian guages in order to draw inferen ces about the kinds of cha nge in Ianguage that may have occurred in the past. This is the“ diachr onic” study of Ian guage.人類語言學(xué)家主要對歷史和早期無文字語言的結(jié)構(gòu)感興趣，他們關(guān)注語言的出現(xiàn)和上千年來語 言的分化。他們從當(dāng)代語言的比較出發(fā)，推測語

11、 言過去發(fā)生了何種變化。這就是對語言歷時的研 究，即研究語言的歷史。Computational Lin guistics計算機(jī)語言學(xué)Some curre nt applicati on areas in elude Machi ne Tran slati on,CorpusLin guisticsandInformation Retrieval as well as various forms of computer mediated（傳遞的）comm uni cati on such as emails, QQ, on li ne shopp ing tran sacti on softwa

12、re and so on.當(dāng)前的一些應(yīng)用領(lǐng)域包括機(jī)器翻譯，語料庫語 言學(xué)和信息檢索，各種各樣因電腦的出現(xiàn)而改變 的交際方式，比如電子郵件，QQ聊天，網(wǎng)上購 物交易軟件等等。In sta nt Messe nger on the in ter net （基于互聯(lián) 網(wǎng)的即時通訊）,such as百度Hi, MSN, UC, YY 語音，阿里旺旺等等。Other interdisciplinary branches1、認(rèn)知語言學(xué) Cognitive Linguistics （chapter 10）2、語言與語言教學(xué)（chapter 12 AppliedLin guistics）3、文本語言學(xué)或語篇分

13、析一 Discourse An alysis Chapter 7 （研究語言和語境的關(guān)系the relati on ship betwee n Ian guage and the con texts in which Ianguage is used, 語篇的銜接 cohesion 連貫 cohere nee 等等）。4、語言與文學(xué) Lan guage and Literature （文體 學(xué) Stylistics）5、神經(jīng)語言學(xué) n euroli nguistics What is Ian guage?對語言的誤解： wrong ideas about Ian guage1、語言僅是一種交際

14、方式Lan guage is only a means of comm uni cati on.2、語言的形式和意義對應(yīng)一致Lan guagehas a form-mea ningcorresp onden ce.3、語言的作用即交換信息The function of Ianguage is to exchange in formatio n.4、英語比漢語難學(xué)EngIish is more difficuIt to Iearn thanChi nese.5、黑人英語不標(biāo)準(zhǔn)需要改造Black En glish is not sta ndard and should be reformed.誤解

15、語言僅僅是一個交際系統(tǒng)Language isonly a system of comm uni cati on.If Ianguage is merely defined as a system of comm uni cati on, we can call the no ises that dogs make Ian guage. As we know, birds, bees, crabs, spiders, and most other creatures comm uni cate in some way, but the information imparted is severe

16、ly limited and confined to a small set of messages.So Ianguage can be defined merely as a system of comm uni cati on,otherwiseIan guage is not unique to huma ns. Lan guage is one of the unique possessi ons of huma n bein gs. It is used for huma n comm uni cati on. It is one of our most articulated m

17、eans of expressing ideas and thoughts. The design features of Ianguage disti nguish us from ani mals.誤解1語言僅是一種交際方式Language isonly a means of comm uni cati on.誤解2語言的形式和意義對應(yīng)一致Language has a form-mea ning corresp ondence“土豆”，形式上是“土”和“豆”這兩個字的 組合，但意義上不是說一把土和一堆豆就是土豆 了，而表達(dá)的是另外的意思，指的是一種蔬菜， 我們把它叫做土豆。誤解3語言的作用

18、即交換信息The function ofIan guage is to excha nge in formati onA man may say ouch! after striking a fin ger nail with a hammer, or he may mutter damn when realizing that he has forgotten an appointment. Such exclamations are usually uttered without any purpose of comm uni cat ing to others but as esse n

19、tially a verbal resp onse to a person s own feelings.這些感嘆詞通常不具有跟他人交際的目的， 只是一個自我感受的言語反應(yīng)。誤解4英語比漢語難學(xué) English is more difficult to learn than Chinese英語和漢語是兩種不同的語言，具有不同的結(jié)構(gòu) 體系，英語是拼音文字，漢語是象形文字，因此 英語重形合，漢語重意合，漢語中詞與詞，句子 與句子的組合只要實(shí)現(xiàn)意義上的連貫就可以了， 但英語要想實(shí)現(xiàn)意義上的連貫，必須在形式上實(shí) 現(xiàn)連貫，從而達(dá)到一個意義與形式珠聯(lián)璧合的整 體。例：我從鄉(xiāng)下跑到京城里，一轉(zhuǎn)眼已經(jīng)六 年了

20、。Six years have passed since I came from the country to the capital.英語所說的形合就在于si nee這個連接詞，漢 語不用連詞也能將意義表達(dá)出來，但英語必須有 連詞才能實(shí)現(xiàn)形式和意義的連貫。文化差異：高低語境中國人說話的語境高還是低？美國人是典型的低語境，美國人做事情一 定要把事情給你講得特別詳細(xì)。漢語：象形文字e.g.交流英語：拼讀文字 e.g. communication不同的語言在歷史的變遷中都形成了不同 的語言體系誤解5黑人英語不標(biāo)準(zhǔn)需要改造Black Englishis not sta ndard and shoul

21、d be reformed 語言沒有優(yōu)劣，只有不同有人說漢語是欠發(fā)達(dá)的語言，因為它缺乏屈 折變化（也就是英語中的詞綴，像單三，單復(fù)數(shù)， 所屬格，進(jìn)行體“-ing，完成體“-ed”，What do you think?洪堡特（洪堡特是18,19世紀(jì)著名的語言學(xué) 家，專心致力于語言的研究，其影響力最大的著 作是論人類語言結(jié)構(gòu)的差異及其對人類精神發(fā) 展的影響，簡稱論語言語言學(xué)家們對語言的定義A gen erally accepted defi niti on is: Lan guage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for huma n co

22、mm uni cati on.system,語言是一個體系。 Eleme nts in it are not arran gedand comb inedran domly,butaccordi ng to some rules and prin ciples.arbitrary:任意性關(guān)于語言任意性的問題我在 語言的本質(zhì)特征上再詳細(xì)講解。Language is vocal-the primary medium for all Ian guages is sou nd.所有語言的最基本媒介都是 聲音，書面文字系統(tǒng)的形成要大大晚于口頭形 式。所以我們對語言定義的時候把它說成是vocal symb

23、olsLan guage is used for huma n comm uni cati on. It is huma n-specific, very differe nt from systems of ani mal comm uni cati on.Origi n of Lan guageNo sin gle theory about the origi n of Ian guage is accepted by everybody. But one point we must be aware of is that man s stepping into social life,

24、leaving behind his primitive life is one of the major factors of the creation of Ianguage. The evolution of man s social life paved the way for the evoluti on of Ian guage. So society is both the creator and the container of Ian guage.語言是在社會文化中形成和習(xí)得的。Lan guage is culturally not gen etically tran smi

25、tted.Desig n features of Ian guageThese features, now called desig n features, are found utterly lack ing in an imal comm uni cati on and thus set huma n Ian guage apart from animal cry systems. arbitrariness， 任意性This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a part

26、icular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, there is no reas on why En glish should use the soun ds/dog/to refer to the ani mal dog, or why Chinese should use “ gou ”o refer to the same ani mal.語言的任意性是現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)之父索緒爾提出來 的。他認(rèn)為，一個語言單位或一個語言符號是概 念和聲音的結(jié)合，不是把物和名稱結(jié)合起來（P9 上面第二句說的任意性指的是物和名稱，而

27、索緒 爾指的是概念和聲音。對語言任意性最大的挑戰(zhàn)在于語言的象似性，比 女口一些擬聲詞（onomatopoetic words, words that imitate natural sounds）， bang （敲門聲）。Duality 二重性Sounds such as d, g, f, o mean nothing separately. They normally take on meaning only when they are combined in certain ways, as in dog, fog and god. This orga ni zati on of Ian

28、guage into two levels-a level of sounds which comb ine into a second level of larger units is called duality.話語的組成元素是本身不傳達(dá)意義的語音， 語音的唯一作用就是相互組合構(gòu)成有意義的單 位，比如詞。本身不傳達(dá)意義的語音的唯一作用就是相互 組合構(gòu)成有意義的單位，比如詞。二層性使語言擁有了一種強(qiáng)大的能產(chǎn)性。成 千上萬的詞來自于一套語音系統(tǒng)，在英語中是 48個音標(biāo)。大量的詞產(chǎn)生無窮的句子，句子又 形成無窮的語篇。prcductivity/creativity生成性 /創(chuàng)造性Because

29、 of its duality, language is productive or creative.語言的創(chuàng)造性來源于語言的二層 性。根據(jù)語言的二層性，語音相互組合構(gòu)成成千 上萬的詞，詞語又是不斷更新變化的，不斷產(chǎn)生 新詞新意，詞又無止境地生成句子，句子再形成 語篇。以前沒有過的或沒有聽過的新詞新句能立 刻被人們所理解。因此我們說語言并不僅僅是一 個交際體系，動物之間也有進(jìn)行交流的“語言” 體系，那語言之所以為人類所獨(dú)有就在于它的創(chuàng) 造性，動物只能傳遞有限的信息，而人類的語言 卻在時刻創(chuàng)造無窮的詞語，句子。語言的創(chuàng)造性另一方面來源于語言的遞歸性， 即語言有制造無窮長句的潛力。He boug

30、ht a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who我們可以將這個句子無限地擴(kuò)展下去。In tercha ngeability 木相互，性In tercha ngeability refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages,（信息的 輸出者和接受者 ）and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchange

31、d at ease. 在動物界去卩 不然，像蜜蜂和長臂猿（gibbons） They areen dowed with the ability to produce and receive message. This comm uni cative ability is found lacking in other animals. Some male birds, for example, possess calls which females do not have So this feature distinguishes human Ianguage from ani mals com

32、m uni cati on.Displacement 移位性Displacement is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time. Most animals can only communicate about things in the immediate situati on, but huma n beings can com muni cate about things that are absent as easily as about

33、 things that are prese nt.我們在交際時用語言符號代表時間上和空間 上并不可及的物體，時間或觀點(diǎn)。我們可以提及 孔子或北極，雖然前者已經(jīng)去世兩千五百五十多 年而后者位置距我們非常之遠(yuǎn)。但動物不行，大多數(shù)動物都處在“外界或內(nèi)部直接刺激控制之 下(immediate exter nal or in ter nal stimulus control)。我們?nèi)耸遣皇艽碳た刂频摹Ｒ恢还凡?能告訴人們?nèi)舾商旌笾魅嗽诩?，而我們能夠談?已不存在或還未出現(xiàn)的事物。蜜蜂的舞蹈展示出 少許的移位性，它能指示食物源，在它回來報告 時，食物源在時間和空間上是過去的和遙遠(yuǎn)的。移位性賦予人們概括和

34、抽象能力。我們還 具備理解“非實(shí)體”概念的能力，如真理和美。SpecializationSpecialization refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical in volveme nt in the act of comm uni cati on. We can talk about an exciting experienee while engaged in activities completely detached from（分離）the subject un der discussi on. For exa

35、mple, a mother can tell a story to her child while slicing up a cake.Animals can only respond to a stimulus and they are totally involved physically in the comm uni cati on process.Cultural Tran smissi onLan guage is culturally tran smitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity（ 遺傳）. A human be

36、ing brought up in isolation simply does not acquire Ian guage as is dem on strated by the studies of children brought up by animals without huma n con tact. Ani mals tran smit their cries through heredity, that is, simple from pare nt to child.一個人若不處在特定的社會文化背景下，是 不可能習(xí)得人類語言的Fun cti ons of Ian guageLa

37、n guage is a tool of comm uni cati on. The term“ comm uni cati on ” can be used to cover much of the function of Ianguage. Linguists have used different terms for different specific functions. Here are some of the major categories.Phatic （交際性的）function/communion:寒暄功能 /寒暄交談，It refers to the social in

38、teraction of Ian guage.指言語的交互性Lan guage is used to establish an atmosphere or maintain social con tact betwee n the speaker and the hearer. Greeti ngs, farewells and comme nts on the weather serve this fun cti on.Mr. P sn eezes viole ntlyMr. Q: Bless youMr. P: Tha nk youExpressions such as “ Howdo y

39、ou do? ” “ How are you doing? ” arf phatic function. They don tconvey any meaning, but are used to establish a comm on sen time nt betwee n the speaker and the hearer.We alluse suchsmall, seem in glymeanin glessexpressi onsto mai nta in acomfortablerelati on shipbetwee npeoplewithout involving any f

40、actual content. 我們者E 會用這種短小看似無意義的表述來維持人們之 間和諧的關(guān)系，并不涉及任何實(shí)質(zhì)內(nèi)容。Directive fun cti on:指令功能Language is used to get the hearer to do somethi ng. Most imperative senten ces are of this fun cti on.Informative function， 信息功能Lan guage is used to tell somethi ng, to give information, or to reason things out. （分

41、析問題） Declarative senten ces serve this fun cti on.For most people the in formative fun cti on is predom inan tly the major role of Ian guage.People often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud, for in sta nee, whe n they are worki ng on amath problem.The use of Ianguage to record the facts is a pre

42、requisite of social developme nt.能夠用語言記錄事實(shí)是社會發(fā)展的前提。The symbol “ Road Closed ” on a road Language serves for the expression of content. Halliday語言為表達(dá)“內(nèi)容”服務(wù)。Language of phatic function is used to establish or main tai n social con tact without involving any factual content.Interrogative function疑問功能As

43、k for in formati on from othersAll questions expecting replies serve this fun cti on.Rhetorical questi ons do not have the interrogative function, such as Shelly amous line “If Win ter comes, can Spri ng be far behind? ”Expressive function 表達(dá)功能Language is used to reveal the speaker sattitudes and fe

44、elings, such as “ My God ”“ Good Heave ns” , “ What a sight ” , “ Wow ” The expressive function can often be entirely“ouch! ”afterpersonal and totally without any implication of comm uni cati on to others.表達(dá)功能能夠完全個 人化而不摻入任何與他人的交際。For example, a man may saystrik ing a fin ger nail with a hammer, or h

45、e may say “ My God! ” when realizing that he has slept over. Such exclamations are usually uttered without any purpose of comm uni cat ing to others but as esse ntially a verbal resp onse to a pers on own feeli ngs.你被什么東西砸了一下然后大叫“哎呦！”意識到睡過了會大叫天哪！這些表達(dá)個人情感的 感嘆詞通常不具有跟他人交際的目的，但對于自我感受來說，卻是很重要的言語反應(yīng)。Evocat

46、ive（喚起，弓 |起 ）functionLan guage is used to create certa in feeli ngs in the hearers. Such as to amuse, to an ger, to worry or to please the hearer.Jokes, advertising and propaganda serve this fun cti on.Utterances of encouragement, inspiration and con solati on are of this fun cti on.According to som

47、e investigation, though the con vey ing of in formatio n occurs in most uses of Ianguage, it probably represents not more than 20 percent of what takes place in verbal comm uni cati on.The emotive fun cti on ofIanguage is one of the most powerful uses of Ianguage because it is crucial in changing th

48、e emotional status of an audience for or against some one or somethi ng.根據(jù)調(diào)查，雖然信息的傳遞發(fā)生在大多數(shù) 語言使用中，但它們最多占全部語言交際的 20%。語言的感情功能是語言最有用的功能之 一,因為它在改變聽者贊成或反對某人，某物的態(tài)度上作用非常關(guān)鍵。Performative fun cti on施為功能At a meeting, when the chairman says: “I declare the meeting open ” ,the meeting has started.I apologize.I n

49、ame this ship the Quee n Elizabeth.I bet you sixpenee it will rain tomorrow.I war n you that the bull will charge.施為句，其中的動詞叫施為性動詞Lan guage is used to do things or to perform acts.這是牛津哲學(xué)家奧斯汀提出的理論。Metali ngual Fun cti on 元語言功能What is metaf un cti on of Ian guage or metali ngual fun cti on?Our Ianguage

50、 can be used to talk about itself.我們的語言可以用來討論語言本身。This makesthe Ianguage infinitely self-reflexive.We can use the word “ book ”o talk about a book, and we can also use the expressi on “ the word book ” to talk about the sign“ book ” itseThe lion chased the unicorn all around thetown.All round the to

51、w n the lion chased the uni cor n.The change of sentence order changes ourperspective about the concerns of the clause.“ what did the lion do? ”“ where or in what scope did the lion chase the uni cor n? ”This is the metali ngual fun cti on of Ian guage.We huma n beings can talk about talk. 人類可 以談?wù)撜f話

52、”。A: Let s get the kids something.B: Okey, but I veto l-C-E-C-R-E-A-M-S.This is a conversation which violates the forth maxim of the cooperative principle, that is to avoid obscurity of expressi on.Some Major Concepts in Linguistics Descriptive vs. Prescriptive描寫式vs.規(guī)定式Do/Don t say X.（主觀規(guī)定）a prescri

53、ptive comma nd（規(guī)定式指令）People do/don t say X.（客觀描述）a descriptive stateme nt（描述性陳述）Traditional grammar which is based on thegrammars of Lat in contains stateme nts like“ dnot split infinitives , “Yoishould never use a double- negative ” or “ do not end sentences withickly goa preposition ”or example, i

54、n traditional grammar, it is in correct to say“ to qu“ a person who I play with” .As traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive. What is “ prescriptive ” ?什么是規(guī)定式？The early Ian guages were studied prescriptively. The grammaria ns tried to lay down rules for the c

55、orrect use of Ianguage before people s actual use of it.Most modern linguistics is descriptive.Moder n lin guists try to discover and record the living Ianguages used by people in real life and do not seek to impose upon them the rules and norms before their actual use of Ian guage.語言學(xué)家并不是在人們使用語言之前就

56、強(qiáng)加 給他們規(guī)則和使用語言的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，而是試圖發(fā)現(xiàn)和 記錄人們使用的活生生的語言語言是被人們使用的，而不應(yīng)該在人們使用 語言之前就制定各種規(guī)則。例：陽光給了萬物溫暖。你很陽光語言的規(guī)范“ There are obvious administrative and education advantages, in the modern world, in sta ndardiz ing the prin cipal dialect that is employed with in a particular country or力regi on.在現(xiàn)代社會，規(guī)范一個特定國家和地區(qū)的主要 方言帶來管理上和

57、教育上明顯的便利。普通話是對各種方言的規(guī)范。簡體字 量詞用語規(guī)范一個人，一頭牛What is the differenee between a prescriptive and a descriptive approach to Ian guage?A prescriptive approach to Ian guage aims to lay down rules for the correct use of Ianguage and tell people what should be in the Ian guage.To say that lin guistics is a descriptive scie nee is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of aIan guage comm un ity actually conform in stead of impos ing upon them rules of correct ness. Synchronic and diachr onic lin guistics“ A Grammar of moder n Greek”現(xiàn)代希臘語語法T