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1、 如果p3u/2D(p,u)=0However,withpricep,averagequalityisp/2andthereforeatnopricewillanytradetakeplaceatall:inspiteofthefactthatatanygivenpricebetween0and3therearetradersoftypeonewhoarewillingtoselltheirautomobilesatapricewhichtradersoftypetwoarewillingtopay.(盡管有這樣的事實(shí),即在0到3之間的某個(gè)價(jià)格下有的交易者1愿意賣掉他們的車,而有的交易者2愿意

2、在這一價(jià)格下購買。但無論如何,在價(jià)格為p,平均質(zhì)量為p/2這種質(zhì)量均勻分布的情形中,在任何價(jià)格水平下都根本不會(huì)發(fā)生二手車交易)(三)對(duì)稱信息Theforegoingiscontrastedwiththecaseofsymmetricinformation.Supposethatthequalityofallcarsisuniformlydistributed,0W允W2.Thenthedemandcurvesandsupplycurvescanbewrittenasfollows:(上面的分析將與對(duì)稱信息下的情形形成對(duì)照。假設(shè)所有汽車的質(zhì)量是均勻分布的,0WW2。那么,供給曲線和需求曲線就可以

3、寫成如下形式:)Supply(供給曲線是)TOC o 1-5 h zS(p)=Np1S(p)=0p1Andthedemandcurvesare(需求曲線是)D(p)=(Y1+Y2)/pp1D(p)=(Y2/p)1p3/2Inequilibrium(均衡時(shí))P=1如果Y2N(3)P=Y2/N如果2Y2/3NY2(4)p=3/2如果N2Y2/3(5)IfNY2,inwhichcasetheincomeoftypetwotradersisinsufficienttobuyallNautomobiles,thereisagaininutilityofY2/2units.)(如果NY2,此時(shí)交易者2的收

4、入不足以購買到N輛汽車,那么,將有Y2/2單位的效用收益)Finally,itshouldbementionedthatinthisexample,iftradersofgroupsoneandtwohavethesameprobabilisticestimatesaboutthequalityofindividualautomobiles-thoughtheseestimatesmayvaryfromautomobiletoautomobile-(3),(4),and(5)willstilldescribeequilibriumwithoneslightchange:pwillthenrep

5、resenttheexpectedpriceofonequalityunit.(最后,對(duì)于該例子應(yīng)該提到的是,如果兩類交易者對(duì)每輛汽車的質(zhì)量具有相同的概率估計(jì)盡管這種估計(jì)因汽車的不同而不同(3)、(4)和(5)仍將能描述均衡,只不過此時(shí)p將代表每單位質(zhì)量的期望價(jià)格)三、例證和應(yīng)用(一)保險(xiǎn)Itisawell-knownfactthatpeopleover65havegreatdifficultyinbuyingmedicalinsurance.Thenaturalquestionarises:whydoesntthepricerisetomatchtherisk?(總所周知,年齡超過65歲的人

6、很難買到醫(yī)療保險(xiǎn)。這就產(chǎn)生了一個(gè)問題:為什么保險(xiǎn)費(fèi)不能一直上升到風(fēng)險(xiǎn)相當(dāng)?shù)乃??)Ouransweristhatasthepricelevelrisesthepeoplewhoinsurethemselveswillbethosewhoareincreasinglycertainthattheywillneedtheinsurance;forerrorinmedicalcheck-ups,doctorssympathywitholderpatients,andsoonmakeitmucheasierfortheapplicanttoassesstherisksinvolvedthanthein

7、surancecompany.(我們的回答是,當(dāng)保險(xiǎn)費(fèi)提高時(shí),只有那些越來越確信自己有必要投保的人才會(huì)買保險(xiǎn)。醫(yī)療體檢中的弊端、醫(yī)生對(duì)病人的同情等因素,使得保險(xiǎn)申請(qǐng)人比保險(xiǎn)公司更加了解自己的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)狀況)Theresultisthattheaveragemedicalconditionofinsuranceapplicantsdeterioratesasthepricelevelrises-withtheresultthatnoinsurancesalesmaytakeplaceatanyprice.(結(jié)果,當(dāng)保險(xiǎn)費(fèi)上升時(shí),投保申請(qǐng)人的平均健康狀況不斷惡化,導(dǎo)致最終將不會(huì)在任何保險(xiǎn)費(fèi)水平上簽訂保險(xiǎn)

8、合同)Thisisstrictlyanalogoustoourautomobilescase,wheretheaveragequalityofusedcarssuppliedfellwithacorrespondingfallinthepricelevel.Thisagreeswiththeexplanationininsurancetextbooks(:這與我們汽車市場的例子十分相似,在那里,待售舊車的平均質(zhì)量隨著市場價(jià)格的下降而下降。關(guān)于這一點(diǎn),保險(xiǎn)學(xué)教科書的解釋是這樣:)Generallyspeakingpoliciesarenotavailableatagesmateriallygre

9、aterthansixty-fiveThetermpremiumsaretoohighforanybutthemostpessimistic(whichistosaytheleasthealthy)insuredstofindattractive.Thusthereisasevereproblemofadverseselectionattheseages.(通常,65歲以上人的保單是無效的。此時(shí),保險(xiǎn)費(fèi)太高以至于除了那些最悲觀的(即健康狀況最差的)投保人而沒有其他人會(huì)對(duì)投保感興趣,因而在這一年齡存在著嚴(yán)重的逆向選擇問題)Thestatisticsdonotcontradictthisconcl

10、usion.Whiledemandsforhealthinsurancerisewithage,a1956nationalsamplesurveyof2,809familieswith8,898personsshowsthathospitalinsurancecoveragedropsfrom63percentofthoseaged45to54,to31percentforthoseover65.(以上結(jié)論與統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)是一致的。1956年對(duì)2809個(gè)家庭8898個(gè)人進(jìn)行的全國性調(diào)查問卷顯示,當(dāng)人們隨著年齡的增長越來越需要保險(xiǎn)時(shí),醫(yī)療保險(xiǎn)的覆蓋率從4565歲人群的63%下降到65歲以上人群的31%

11、)Andsurprisingly,thissurveyalsofindsaveragemedicalexpensesformalesaged55to64of$88,whilemalesover65payanaverageof$77.(令人吃驚的是,調(diào)查顯示,5564歲之間男性的平均醫(yī)療支出是88美元,超過65歲男性的該項(xiàng)支出是77美元)Whilenoninsuredexpenditurerisesfrom$66to$80intheseagegroups,insuredexpendituredeclinesfrom$105to$70.(然而,在該年齡段的人的非保險(xiǎn)支出從66美元上升到80美元,保

12、險(xiǎn)支出則從105美元下降到70美元)Theconclusionistemptingthatinsurancecompaniesareparticularlywaryofgivingmedicalinsurancetoolderpeople.(結(jié)論是饒有趣味的:保險(xiǎn)公司對(duì)向老人提供保險(xiǎn)尤為謹(jǐn)慎)Theprincipleofadverseselectionispotentiallypresentinalllinesofinsurance.ThefollowingstatementappearsinaninsurancetextbookwrittenattheWhartonSchool:(逆向選擇問

13、題是所有類型的保險(xiǎn)都存在的普遍問題。下面的觀點(diǎn)摘自沃頓商學(xué)院的一本教科書:)Thereispotentialadverseselectioninthefactthathealthyterminsurancepolicyholdersmaydecidetoterminatetheircoveragewhentheybecomeolderandpremiumsmount.(當(dāng)逐漸變老的那些健康保險(xiǎn)的投保人面對(duì)保費(fèi)上升時(shí),他們就有可能決定退出保險(xiǎn),這種情況中便存在潛在的逆向選擇)Thisactioncouldleaveaninsurerwithanundueproportionofbelowaver

14、agerisksandclaimsmightbehigherthananticipated(.這一行動(dòng)能使保險(xiǎn)公司的客戶中高風(fēng)險(xiǎn)客戶所占比例過高,而使保險(xiǎn)公司可能支付比預(yù)期要高的賠償金額)Adverseselectionappears(oratleastispossible)whenevertheindividualorgroupinsuredhasfreedomtobuyornottobuy,tochoosetheamountorplanofinsurance,andtopersistortodiscontinueasapolicyholder(.當(dāng)保險(xiǎn)個(gè)人或團(tuán)體能自由選擇購買或不買保險(xiǎn),能

15、都自由選擇保險(xiǎn)金和保險(xiǎn)計(jì)劃,自由選擇維持保險(xiǎn)或中斷保險(xiǎn)時(shí),逆向選擇便會(huì)出現(xiàn),或至少可能存在逆向選擇)Groupinsurance,whichisthemostcommonformofmedicalinsuranceintheUnitedStates,picksoutthehealthy,forgenerallyadequatehealthisapreconditionforemployment.(團(tuán)體保險(xiǎn)是美國醫(yī)療保險(xiǎn)中最普遍的保險(xiǎn)形式,它用于鑒別人們的健康狀況,因?yàn)橥ǔG闆r下,健康是被雇傭的一個(gè)先決條件)Atthesametimethismeansthatmedicalinsuranceis

16、leastavailabletothosewhoneeditmost,fortheinsurancecompaniesdotheirownadverseselection.(同時(shí),這意味著保險(xiǎn)公司自身的逆向選擇行動(dòng)可能使那些最需要保險(xiǎn)的人輕易得到保險(xiǎn))Thisaddsonemajorargumentinfavorofmedicare.(醫(yī)療保險(xiǎn)市場上的逆向選擇現(xiàn)象為支持政府醫(yī)療保障方案提供了一個(gè)主要論據(jù))Onacostbenefitbasismedicaremaypayoff:foritisquitepossiblethateveryindividualinthemarketwouldbewi

17、llingtopaytheexpectedcostofhismedicareandbuyinsurance,yetnoinsurancecompanycanaffordtosellhimapolicy-foratanypriceitwillattracttoomanylemons.(通過成本收益分析,我們可以看到醫(yī)療保障是值得的,因?yàn)楹苡锌赡苁袌錾纤腥硕枷M冻鲆欢ǖ尼t(yī)療保險(xiǎn)的期望成本來購買保險(xiǎn),但卻沒有保險(xiǎn)公司愿意出售保單,因?yàn)闊o論在那個(gè)價(jià)格水平下,保險(xiǎn)合同的購買中都會(huì)有太多檸檬”Thewelfareeconomicsofmedicare,inthisview,isexactlyanalo

18、goustotheusualclassroomargumentforpublicexpenditureonroads.(從這一方面來看,對(duì)醫(yī)療保障方案的經(jīng)濟(jì)分析與平常我們關(guān)于政府利用公共支出建設(shè)馬路的討論十分相似)(二)少數(shù)名族就業(yè)TheLemonsPrinciplealsocastslightontheemploymentofminorities.Employersmayrefusetohiremembersofminoritygroupsforcertaintypesofjobs.(檸檬原則還能用來解釋少數(shù)民族就業(yè)問題。雇主可能在某些職位上不愿意雇傭少數(shù)名族的職員)Thisdecision

19、maynotreflectirrationalityorprejudice-butprofitmaximization.Forracemayserveasagoodstatisticfortheapplicantssocialbackground,qualityofschooling,andgeneraljobcapabilities.(這種決策并非是帶有成見或者歧視,而是追求利潤最大化的結(jié)果。對(duì)于求職者的社會(huì)背景和工作能力,種族可以是一個(gè)很好的統(tǒng)計(jì)指標(biāo))Goodqualityschoolingcouldserveasasubstituteforthisstatistic;bygradings

20、tudentstheschoolingsystemcangiveabetterindicatorofqualitythanothermoresuperficialcharacteristics.(高質(zhì)量的教育水平可以用來作為該統(tǒng)計(jì)指標(biāo)的一個(gè)補(bǔ)充,教育系統(tǒng)通過區(qū)分學(xué)生來作為一個(gè)比其他表面特征更優(yōu)越的顯示信號(hào))AsT.W.Schultzwrites,Theeducationalestablishmentdiscoversandcultivatespotentialtalent.Thecapabilitiesofchildrenandmaturestudentscanneverbeknownunti

21、lfoundandcultivated.(Italicsadded.)(正如舒爾茨所寫的那樣“興辦教育能夠發(fā)覺和培養(yǎng)潛在的天才,兒童和成人的才能如果不經(jīng)發(fā)掘和培養(yǎng)將不會(huì)被知曉”)Anuntrainedworkermayhavevaluablenaturaltalents,butthesetalentsmustbecertifiedbytheeducationalestablishmentbeforeacompanycanaffordtousethem.Thecertifyingestablishment,however,mustbecredible;theunreliabilityofslum

22、schoolsdecreasestheeconomicpossibilitiesoftheirstudents.(雖然一名未受過教育的工人可能具有十分有價(jià)值的才能,但是在公司決定雇傭他之前,這些才能必須經(jīng)過教育系統(tǒng)的證明。無論如何,這種起到證明作用的系統(tǒng)應(yīng)該是可信的,貧民區(qū)學(xué)校的低的證明能力相應(yīng)地低估了學(xué)生的經(jīng)濟(jì)潛力)Thislackmaybeparticularlydisadvantageoustomembersofalreadydisadvantagedminoritygroups.Foranemployermaymakearationaldecisionnottohireanymembe

23、rsofthesegroupsinresponsiblepositions-becauseitisdifficulttodistinguishthosewithgoodjobqualificationsfromthosewithbadqualifications.(教育上的缺陷使已經(jīng)是弱勢群體的少數(shù)民族更加不理。因?yàn)殡y以區(qū)分少數(shù)民族中工作能力高和工作能力低的職員,雇主的理智選擇是在責(zé)任重大的崗位上不雇傭少數(shù)民族的工人)ThistypeofdecisionisclearlywhatGeorgeStiglerhadinmindwhenhewrote,inaregimeofignoranceEnri

24、coFermiwouldhavebeenagardener,VonNeumannacheckoutclerkatadrugstore.(這種決策早已清晰地反映在喬治.斯蒂格利茨的思想中,他寫道:“如果沒有接受教育,恩萊科.費(fèi)米可能只是個(gè)花匠,而馮.諾依曼則可能是商店里的一名檢驗(yàn)員”)Asaresult,however,therewardsforworkinslumschoolstendtoaccruetothegroupasawhole-inraisingitsaveragequality-ratherthantotheindividual.(無論女口何,貧民區(qū)的學(xué)校的工作不僅可以使那里受教育

25、的個(gè)人收益,還能通過提高人們的平均素質(zhì)增加對(duì)整個(gè)社會(huì)群體的回報(bào))Onlyinsofarasinformationinadditiontoraceisusedisthereanyincentivefortraining.(僅從教育水皮可以作為種族的附加信息這個(gè)角度來說,人們是用動(dòng)機(jī)接受教育的)AnadditionalworryisthattheOfficeofEconomicOpportunityisgoingtousecost-benefitanalysistoevaluateitsprograms.Formanybenefitsmaybeexternal.(我們的另一個(gè)但有就是企業(yè)一直用成本

26、收益分析法來評(píng)價(jià)他們的項(xiàng)目優(yōu)劣,因?yàn)檫@種方法可能忽略許多外部性)Thebenefitfromtrainingminoritygroupsmayariseasmuchfromraisingtheaveragequalityofthegroupasfromraisingthequalityoftheindividualtrainee;and,likewise,thereturnsmaybedistributedoverthewholegroupratherthantotheindividual.(對(duì)少數(shù)民族群體進(jìn)行培訓(xùn)的好處在于它提高個(gè)人素質(zhì)的同時(shí),也提高了整體群體的平均素質(zhì)。同樣,這種回報(bào)并不單

27、單在個(gè)體間得到分配,而且使得整個(gè)群體受益)(三)欺騙性交易的成本TheLemonsmodelcanbeusedtomakesomecommentsonthecostsofdishonesty.Consideramarketinwhichgoodsaresoldhonestlyordishonestly;qualitymayberepresented,oritmaybemisrepresented.(檸檬模型也可以用于解釋欺騙性交易的成本。假設(shè),在市場上貨物買賣或是誠實(shí)地進(jìn)行或是帶有欺騙性的進(jìn)行,即質(zhì)量可能是被真是標(biāo)記,也可能是被虛假標(biāo)記)Thepurchasersproblem,ofcours

28、e,istoidentifyquality.Thepresenceofpeopleinthemarketwhoarewillingtoofferinferiorgoodstendstodrivethemarketoutofexistenceasinthecaseofourautomobilelemons.(買者的困難就是確定質(zhì)量。那些在是市場上提供次品的人就像二手車市場上的檸檬一樣會(huì)使得整個(gè)市場瓦解)Itisthispossibilitythatrepresentsthemajorcostsofdishonesty-fordishonestdealingstendtodrivehonestde

29、alingsoutofthemarket.(這種可能性構(gòu)成了欺騙性交易的成本,即欺騙性交易將誠實(shí)的交易者逐出市場)Theremaybepotentialbuyersofgoodqualityproductsandtheremaybepotentialsellersofsuchproductsintheappropriatepricerange,however,thepresenceofpeoplewhowishtopawnbadwaresasgoodwarestendstodriveoutthelegitimatebusiness.(市場上原本可能有買主想購買高質(zhì)量的商品,而且有賣主愿意在一個(gè)

30、適當(dāng)?shù)膬r(jià)格范圍內(nèi)出售該種商品。但是,由于出現(xiàn)一些蓄意以次充好進(jìn)行欺騙性交易的人,使得合法的誠實(shí)交易者被逐出市場。)Thecostofdishonesty,therefore,liesnotonlyintheamountbywhichthepurchaserischeated;thecostalsomustincludethelossincurredfromdrivinglegitimatebusinessoutofexistence.(因此,欺騙性交易的成本不僅是買者被騙取的部分,還包括正常交易不復(fù)存在所帶來的損失)Dishonestyinbusinessisaseriousproblemin

31、underdevelopedcountries.Ourmodelgivesapossiblestructuretothisstatementanddelineatesthenatureoftheexternaleconomiesinvolved(.欺騙性交易在不發(fā)達(dá)國家市場是個(gè)嚴(yán)重的問題。我們的模型對(duì)這一點(diǎn)進(jìn)行了可能的解釋,并且對(duì)經(jīng)濟(jì)的外部性給予論述)Inparticular,inthemodeleconomydescribed,dishonesty,orthemisrepresentationofthequalityofautomobiles,costs1/2unitofutilityper

32、automobile,furthermore,itreducesthesizeoftheusedcarmarketfromNto0.Wecan,consequently,directlyevaluatethecostsofdishonesty-atleastintheory(.尤其是,在我們描述的模型中,欺騙行為或者說對(duì)汽車質(zhì)量的誤導(dǎo)性的說明耗費(fèi)了每單位汽車1/2的效用。進(jìn)一步講,這種行為使得汽車市場規(guī)模由N縮減到0,這樣,我們可以直接估計(jì)欺騙性的成本,這至少在理論上是行的通的)Thereisconsiderableevidencethatqualityvariationisgreaterin

33、underdevelopedthanindevelopedareas.Forinstance,theneedforqualitycontrolofexportsandStateTradingCorporationscanbetakenasoneindicator.InIndia,forexample,undertheExportQualityControlandInspectionActof1963,about85percentofIndianexportsarecoveredunderoneortheothertypeofqualitycontrol.(有大量證據(jù)可以說明在不發(fā)達(dá)地區(qū)商品的質(zhì)

34、量差異要比在發(fā)達(dá)地區(qū)大。對(duì)于這一點(diǎn),我們可以從對(duì)出口質(zhì)量控制和國家間貿(mào)易合作的需求來衡量。例如,在印度,在1963出口監(jiān)督與控制法案的規(guī)范下,大約85%的印度出口產(chǎn)品要接受一種質(zhì)量控制)Indianhousewivesmustcarefullygleanthericeofthelocalbazaartosortoutstonesofthesamecolorandshapewhichhavebeenintentionallyaddedtotherice.Anycomparisonoftheheterogeneityofqualityinthestreetmarketandthecannedqua

35、litiesoftheAmericansupermarketsuggeststhatqualityvariationisagreaterproblemintheEastthanintheWest.(在印度的地方市場上購買稻米,主婦們必須仔細(xì)的從中挑選出那些與米粒顏色相同,被蓄意添加到稻米中的石粒。而對(duì)美國街邊集市的商品和大型超市的商品進(jìn)行比較厚,我們不難發(fā)現(xiàn),與西方國家相比,東方國家市場上質(zhì)量的差異更是大問題)Inonetraditionalpatternofdevelopmentthemerchantsofthepre-industrialgenerationturnintothefirst

36、entrepreneursofthenext.Thebest-documentedcaseisJapan,butthisalsomayhavebeenthepatternforBritainandAmerica(在傳統(tǒng)發(fā)展模式中,前工業(yè)時(shí)期的那一代商人成為了工業(yè)化國家的第一批企業(yè)家。有記載的最好例子是日本,并且這一道理也適用于英國和美國)Inourpicturetheimportantskillofthemerchantisidentifyingthequalityofmerchandise;thosewhocanidentifyusedcarsinourexampleandcanguaran

37、teethequalitymayprofitbyasmuchasthedifferencebetweentypetwotradersbuyingpriceandtypeonetraderssellingprice.Thesepeoplearethemerchants.Inproductiontheseskillsareequallynecessary-bothtobeabletoidentifythequalityofinputsandtocertifythequalityofoutputs.Andthisisone(added)reasonwhythemerchantsmaylogicall

38、ybecomethefirstentrepreneurs.(在此,我們把能夠識(shí)別商品質(zhì)量作為商人們的一項(xiàng)重要本領(lǐng)。在檸檬模型中,那些可以識(shí)別汽車質(zhì)量的人可以通過兩類交易者間的買賣差價(jià)來獲利,這些就是商人。在生產(chǎn)領(lǐng)域,這項(xiàng)技能同樣重要,它被用來鑒別投入品的質(zhì)量,保證產(chǎn)出品的質(zhì)量。這就是商人為何理所當(dāng)然成為第一批企業(yè)家的原因)Theproblem,ofcourse,isthatentrepreneurshipmaybeascarceresource;nodevelopmenttextleavesentrepreneurshipunemphasized.Sometreatitascentral(當(dāng)然

39、,企業(yè)家是一種稀缺資源。沒有一個(gè)國家發(fā)展的歷史能夠缺少對(duì)企業(yè)家的重視,而且有些國家的發(fā)展是以企業(yè)家為中心)Given,then,thatentrepreneurshipisscarce,therearetwowaysinwhichproductvariationsimpededevelopment.First,thepay-offtotradeisgreatforwouldbeentrepreneurs,andhencetheyaredivertedfromproduction;second,theamountofentrepreneurialtimeperunitoutputisgreate

40、r,thegreaterarethequalityvariations.(如果缺乏企業(yè)家,產(chǎn)品的差異性將從以下兩個(gè)方面影響到經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展:第一,對(duì)于潛在的企業(yè)家階層,進(jìn)行倒賣的利潤過高使他們遠(yuǎn)離生產(chǎn)領(lǐng)域;第二,每單位產(chǎn)出所占用的企業(yè)家的時(shí)間越多,產(chǎn)品的質(zhì)量差異就會(huì)越大)(四)不發(fā)達(dá)國家的信貸市場CreditmarketsinunderdevelopedcountriesoftenstronglyreflecttheoperationoftheLemonsPrinciple.InIndiaamajorfractionofindustrialenterpriseiscontrolledbymanagi

41、ngagencies(accordingtoarecentsurvey,thesemanagingagenciescontrolled65.7percentofthenetworthofpubliclimitedcompaniesand66percentoftotalassets)(.不發(fā)達(dá)國家的信貸市場也充分反映了檸檬原則。在印度,絕大部分的工業(yè)企業(yè)被代管公司控制著(最近一項(xiàng)研究報(bào)告指出,這些“代管公司”控制著公共有限責(zé)任公司資本凈值得65.7%和資產(chǎn)總值的66%)Hereisahistoriansaccountofthefunctionandgenesisofthemanagingagen

42、cysystem:(下面是一位歷史學(xué)家對(duì)這種“代管公司體系”的起源和運(yùn)作的描述)ThemanagementoftheSouthAsiancommercialsceneremainedthefunctionofmerchanthouses,andatypeoforganizationpeculiartoSouthAsiaknownastheManagingAgency.(南亞的商業(yè)活動(dòng)仍然保持著商人家族式的運(yùn)作,其中存在一種特殊的組織機(jī)構(gòu)被稱為代管公司)Whenanewventurewaspromoted(suchasamanufacturingplant,aplantation,oratrad

43、ingventure),thepromoterswouldapproachanestablishedmanagingagency.ThepromotersmightbeIndianorBritish,andtheymighthavetechnicalorfinancialresourcesormerelyaconcession(新企業(yè)(如一個(gè)制造廠、一個(gè)植物園或一個(gè)貿(mào)易公司)發(fā)起時(shí),發(fā)起者會(huì)與代管公司聯(lián)系。發(fā)起者可能是印度人或英國人,他們可能擁有技術(shù)、金融資源或特許權(quán))Inanycasetheywouldturntotheagencybecauseofitsreputation,whichwo

44、uldencourageconfidenceintheventureandstimulateinvestment.(但無論是那種情況下,他們都要與代管公司聯(lián)系,因?yàn)榇芄镜男抛u(yù)可以給公司經(jīng)營帶來信心和充足的投資)Inturn,asecondmajorfeatureoftheIndianindustrialscenehasbeenthedominanceofthesemanagingagenciesbycaste(or,moreaccurately,communal)groups.Thusfirmscanusuallybeclassifiedaccordingtocommunalorigin.

45、5Inthisenvironment,inwhichoutsideinvestorsarelikelytobebilkedoftheirholdings,either(印度工業(yè)活動(dòng)的第二個(gè)主要特征是這種代管公司被世襲的群體控制著,或者更準(zhǔn)確的說被同族的群體控制著,因而眾多的公司可以按照種族劃分。在這種情況下,外部投資者的投資很有可能被詐騙。因此,這種公司有兩種運(yùn)行方式)(1)firmsestablishareputationforhonestdealing,whichconfersuponthemamonopolyrentinsofarastheirservicesarelimitedinsu

46、pply,(第一,公司建立起了誠實(shí)交易的信譽(yù),當(dāng)他們提供的服務(wù)的供給是有限時(shí),這種聲譽(yù)可以帶來壟斷租金)or(2)thesourcesoffinancearelimitedtolocalcommunalgroupswhichcanusecommunal-andpossiblyfamilial-tiestoencouragehonestdealingwithinthecommunity.(第二,雖然他們金融資源有限,但是,它們可以借助種族關(guān)系,也可能是家庭的關(guān)系網(wǎng)在族內(nèi)從事誠實(shí)交易)Itis,inIndianeconomichistory,extraordinarilydifficulttodi

47、scernwhetherthesavingsofrichlandlordsfailedtobeinvestedintheindustrialsector(確實(shí),在印度的經(jīng)濟(jì)史中,要想辨別那些富裕地主的存款是否應(yīng)該投資到工業(yè)領(lǐng)域是十分困難的)(1)becauseofafeartoinvestinventurescontrolledbyothercommunities,(2)becauseofinflatedpropensitiestoconsume,or(3)becauseoflowratesofreturn.(一是,因?yàn)樗麄兒ε聦①Y金投入到其他種族控制的公司,二是因?yàn)樗麄兙哂袕?qiáng)烈的消費(fèi)傾向,三

48、是因?yàn)榛貓?bào)率很低)Attheveryleast,however,itisclearthattheBritish-ownedmanagingagenciestendedtohaveanequityholdingwhosecommunaloriginwasmoreheterogeneousthantheIndian-controlledagencyhouses,andwouldusuallyincludebothIndianandBritishinvestors.(但是,英國人擁有的代管公司資本凈值得持有者比印度人的代管公司具有更大的種族上的多樣性,并且經(jīng)常既包含英國人也包含印度人)(2)Asec

49、ondexampleoftheworkingsoftheLemonsPrincipleconcernstheextortionaterateswhichthelocalmoneylenderchargeshisclients.InIndiathesehighratesofinteresthavebeentheleadingfactorinlandlessness;theso-calledCooperativeMovementwasmeanttocounteractthisgrowinglandlessnessbysettingupbankstocompetewiththelocalmoneyl

50、enders(.第二個(gè)有關(guān)檸檬原則運(yùn)用的例子是關(guān)于地方性的放貸者向借款者所要高利率的問題。在印度,這種高利率已經(jīng)成為人們無法擁有土地的首要原因,被稱為“合作行動(dòng)”的運(yùn)動(dòng)試圖通過建立銀行與地方性放貸者競爭來對(duì)付這種人們無法擁有土地的情況)Whilethelargebanksinthecentralcitieshaveprimeinterestratesof6,8,and10percent,thelocalmoneylendercharges15,25,andeven50percent.Theanswertothisseemingparadoxisthatcreditisgrantedonlywh

51、erethegranterhas(1)easymeansofenforcinghiscontractor(2)personalknowledgeofthecharacteroftheborrower(當(dāng)位于中心城市的大銀行索要6%、8%和10%的優(yōu)惠貸款利率時(shí),地方性貸款者卻索要15%、25%甚至是50%的利率。這個(gè)看似矛盾的問題的答案在于放貸者方面,只有放他們(1)認(rèn)為合同容易被履行時(shí),或者(2)了解貸款者借款者個(gè)人信息時(shí),才愿意提供貸款)Themiddlemanwhotriestoarbitragebetweentheratesofthemoneylenderandthecentralba

52、nkisapttoattractallthelemonsandtherebymakealoss.(那些試圖通過地方性貸款者與大銀行間的利率差套利的人,可能由于吸引了過多的“檸檬”而遭受損失)ThisinterpretationcanbeseeninSirMalcolmDarlingsinterpretationofthevillagemoneylenderspower(:我們可以從馬爾科姆.達(dá)林對(duì)鄉(xiāng)村放貸者的勢力解釋中理解上述觀點(diǎn))ItisonlyfairtorememberthatintheIndianvillagethemoney-lenderisoftentheonethriftyper

53、sonamongstagenerallythriftlesspeople;andthathismethodsofbusiness,thoughdemoralizingundermodernconditions,suitthehappy-go-luckywaysofthepeasant(.印度小鄉(xiāng)村放貸者往往是總舵不節(jié)儉人中的節(jié)儉者。雖然從現(xiàn)代的觀點(diǎn)來看,他們做生意的套路十分混亂,但這種方式卻適合那些隨遇而安的農(nóng)民)Heisalwaysaccessible,evenatnight;dispenseswithtroublesomeformalities,asksnoinconvenientques

54、tions,advancespromptly,andifinterestispaid,doesnotpressforrepaymentofprincipal.Hekeepsinclosepersonaltouchwithhisclients,andinmanyvillagessharestheiroccasionsofwealorwoe.Withhisintimateknowledgeofthosearoundhimheisable,withoutseriousrisk,tofinancethosewhowouldotherwisegetnoloanatall.Italicsadded.(他們

55、全天候地做生意,省略了那些繁瑣的正式程序,并且,只要借款人支付利息,他們就不會(huì)追要本金。他們與顧客保持著良好的接觸,在許多村莊,放貸者會(huì)與顧客們分擔(dān)他們的幸運(yùn)與不幸。有了這些詳細(xì)的關(guān)于他身邊借款人的資料,他就能進(jìn)行低風(fēng)險(xiǎn)投資,而不會(huì)借款給那些他根本不了解的人)OrlookatBarbaraWardsaccount:(在來看看巴巴拉.沃德的論述)AsmallshopkeeperinaHongKongfishingvillagetoldme:Igivecredittoanyonewhoanchorsregularlyinourbay;butifitissomeoneIdontknowwell,th

56、enIthinktwiceaboutitunlessIcanfindoutallabouthim.(香港小漁村的小店主告訴我:“我只借錢給那些定期??窟@里的人。除非我了解借款人的所有情況,否則我將考慮再三”)Or,aprofitablesidelineofcottonginninginIranistheloaningofmoneyforthenextseason,sincetheginningcompaniesoftenhavealineofcreditfromTeheranbanksatthemarketrateofinterest.Butinthefirstyearsofoperation

57、largelossesareexpectedfromunpaiddebts-duetopoorknowledgeofthelocalscene.(在伊朗,每個(gè)軋棉公司都以市場利率向德黑蘭銀行申請(qǐng)一些列貸款,因?yàn)?,軋棉行業(yè)是一個(gè)十分有利可圖的副業(yè)就是為下一季生產(chǎn)放貸。但是放貸者可能在開始的幾年里由于存在無法償還的債務(wù)而遭到損失,因?yàn)榇藭r(shí)他們對(duì)當(dāng)?shù)亟栀J者的情況還不甚了解)四、補(bǔ)償機(jī)制Numerousinstitutionsarisetocounteracttheeffectsofqualityuncertainty.Oneobviousinstitutionisguarantees.Mostcon

58、sumerdurablescarryguaranteestoensurethebuyerofsomenormalexpectedquality.Onenaturalresultofourmodelisthattheriskisbornebythesellerratherthanbythebuyer(.需對(duì)規(guī)則用于抵消質(zhì)量不確定性帶來的影響。一個(gè)很明顯的例子就是保證書。大多數(shù)的耐用品附帶保證書以向買者保證產(chǎn)品具有某些預(yù)期的質(zhì)量。我們模型的一個(gè)自然結(jié)果就是賣方承擔(dān)了風(fēng)險(xiǎn)而不是買方)Asecondexampleofaninstitutionwhichcounteractstheeffectsofqualityuncertaintyisthebrand-namegood.Brandnamesnotonlyindicatequalitybutalsogivetheconsumerameansofretaliationifthequalitydoesnotmeetexpectations.Fortheconsumerwillthencurtailfuturepurchases.Oftentoo,newproductsareassociatedwitholdbrandnames.Thisensurestheprospectiveconsumerofthequalityo

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