新編簡明英語語言學教程整理

ChapteroneIntroduction一、定義1.語言學LinguisticsLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.2.普通語言學GeneralLinguisticsThestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledGenerallinguistics.3.語言languageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.語言是人類用來交際的任意性的有聲符號體系。4.識別特征DesignFeaturesItreferstothedefiningpopertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.語言識別特征是指人類語言區(qū)別與其他任何動物的交際體系的限定性特征。Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多產(chǎn)性Duality雙重性Displacement移位性Culturaltransmission文化傳遞⑴arbitrarinessThereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.P.Sthearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions⑵ProductivityAnimalsarequitelimitedinthemessagestheyareabletosend.⑶DualityLanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.⑷DisplacementLanguagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.⑸CulturaltransmissionHumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,butwehavetobetaughtandlearnedthedetailsofanylanguagesystem.thisshowedthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.notbyinstinct.animalsarebornwiththecapacitytoproducethesetofcallspeculiartotheirspecies.5.語言能力CompetenceCompetenceistheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.6.語言運用performancePerformanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.語言運用是所掌握的規(guī)則在語言交際中的體現(xiàn)。7.歷時語言學DiachroniclinguisticsThestudyoflanguagechangethroughtime.adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy,whichstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.8.共時語言學SynchronicallinguisticsThestudyofagivenlanguageatagiventime.9.語言langueTheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity.10.言語paroleTherealizationoflangueinactualuse.11.規(guī)定性PrescriptiveItaimstolaydownrulesfor”correct”behavior,totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhatshouldnotsay.12.描述性DescriptiveAlinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.二、知識點1.languageisnotanisolatedphenomenon,it’sasocialactivitycarriedoutinacertainsocialenvironmentbyhumanbeings.語言不是一種孤立的現(xiàn)象，而是人類在一定的社會環(huán)境下進行的一種社會活動。2.幾種觀點和現(xiàn)象的提出者：⑴瑞士語言學家F.deSaussureF.deSaussure:Langue和parole的區(qū)別⑵U.S.AlinguistN.Chomsky美國語言學家N.Chomskyin1950針對Saussure’slangue&parole提出Competence和performance⑶曾經(jīng)對語言概念下過定義的語言學家Sapir---languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicationideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.Hall----languageistheinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.Chomsky---fromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.⑷U.S.ALinguistCharlesHockett美國語言學家CharlesHockett提出了語言的識別特征designfeatures3.theword’language’precededbythezero-article,itimpliesthatlinguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage.Language一詞前不加冠詞說明語言學家不只研究一種特定的語言。4.inordertodiscoverthenatureoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,whatthelinguistshastodofirstiftostudylanguagefacts.5.languageisacomplicatedentitywithmultiplelayersandfacts,soit'shardlypossibleforthelinguisticstodealwithitallatonce.判斷題6.Fristdrewtheattentionofthelinguistswerethesoundsusedinlanguages.最先引起語言學家注意的是語言的發(fā)音。三、問答題1.whataremajorbranchesoflinguistics?whatdoeseachstudy?Phonetics----it’sdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage,it’sconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.Phonology---thestudyofsoundssystems—theinventoryofdistinctivesoundsthatoccurinalanguageandthepatternsintowhichtheyfall.Morphology---It’sabranchofagrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Syntax-------it'sasubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureofalanguage.Semantics---It’ssimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginabstraction.Pragmatics---thestudyofmeaningincontextofwords.Sociolinguistics—thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety.Psycholinguistics---thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofthemind.Appliedlinguistics---theapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning.2.whydowesaylanguageisarbitrary?Languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenthesoundsthatpeopleuseandtheobjectstowhichthesesoundsrefer.Thefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforthesameobjectisagoodillustrationofthearbitrarynatureoflanguage,it’sonlyourtacitagreementofutteranceandconceptatworkandnotanyinnaterelationshipboundupintheutterance.Atypicalexampletoillustratethe‘a(chǎn)rbitrariness’oflanguageis‘a(chǎn)rosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet’.3.whatmakesmodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?Modernlinguisticsisdescriptive,itsinvestigationsarebasedonauthenticandmainlyspokenlanguagedate.現(xiàn)代語言學是描述性的，其研究以確實可靠的、主要以口語形式的資料為基礎(chǔ)。traditionalgrammarisprescriptive.itisbasedon’high’writtenlanguage.傳統(tǒng)語法是規(guī)定性的，研究‘高級’書面語。4.Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?whyModernlinguisticsismainlysynchronic,focusingonthepresent-daylanguage.unlessthevariousstatesofalanguagearesuccessfullystudied,itwillnotbepossibletodescribelanguagefromadiachronicpointofview.現(xiàn)代語言學主要是共時性的，重點研究現(xiàn)代語言。除非對語言的各種狀態(tài)都進行成功的研究，否則很難從歷時性角度對語言進行描述。5.whichenjoyspriorityinmodernlinguistics,speechorwritings?Speechenjoysforthefollowingreasons:⑴Speechprecedeswritingintermsofevolution.⑵Alargeamountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechthaninwriting.⑶speechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage.6.howisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’s?BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandtheactualuseoflanguage.theirpurposeistosingleoutthelanguagesystemforseriousstudyTwolinguistsideadifferinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguage,Chomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofview,competenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.6.thedistinctionbetweenlangueandparole?⑴langueisabstract,relativelystable⑵paroleisconcrete,variesfrompersontoperson,fromsituationtosituation.1/Whatislinguistics?什么是語言學？Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.2/Thescopeoflinguistics語言學的研究范疇Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.(普通語言學)Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalledphonetics.（語音學）Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.（音系學）Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalledmorphology.（形態(tài)學）Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax（句法學）Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.（語義學）Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.（語用學）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsocio-linguistics.（社會語言學）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.（心理語言學）Thestudyofapplications(astherecoveryofspeechability)isgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics.（應(yīng)用語言學）Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguage.Otherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics,（人類語言學）neurologicallinguistics,（神經(jīng)語言學）mathematicallinguistics,（數(shù)字語言學）andcomputationallinguistics.（計算機語言學）3/Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics語言學研究中的幾對基本概念Prescriptiveanddescriptive規(guī)定與描寫Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive,ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhilemodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis“correct”ornot.Synchronicanddiachronic共時和歷時Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyismoreimportant.Speechandwriting口頭語與書面語Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,butnotthewrittenform.Reasonsare:1.Speechprecedeswriting;2.Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform;3.Intermsoffunction,thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalargerloadofcommunicationthanthewritten.Langueandparole語言和言語TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20thcentury.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.Competenceandperformance語言能力和語言運用ProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.Hedefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerules.ChapterTwoPhonology一、定義1.寬式音標BroadtranscriptionThetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithlettersymbolsonly.2.窄式音標NarrowtranscriptionThetranscriptionofspeechsoundwithletterssymbolsandthediacritics.3.清音VoicelessWhenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchaconditionarecalledvoicelesssounds.4.濁音VoicingSoundsproducedwhilethevocalcordsarevibratingarecalledvoicedsounds.5.元音VowelThesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledvowels.6.輔音ConsonantsThesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltractarecalledconsonants.7.音位PhonemeThebasicunitinphonology,it’sacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.8.音位變體AllophonesDifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.9.音素phoneAphoneticunitorsegment.itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,it’saspeechsoundweusewhenspeakingalanguage.10.最小對立對MinimalpairWhentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.11.超切分特征SuprasegmentalThephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonationandtone.12.互補分布complementarydistributionP35Twoallophonesofthesamephonemearesaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.13.語言的語音媒介PhonicmediumoflanguageThelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage.在人類交際中有著一定意義、對語言學研究來說舉足輕重。有限的聲音是語音媒介。14.爆破音stopsWhenaobstructioncreatedbythespeechorgansistotalorcomplete,thespeechsoundproducedwiththeobstructionreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainiscalledastoporaplosive.theyare[b][p][t][d][k][g]二、知識點1.statisticsresultingfromcarefulinvestigationsshowthattherehavebeenover5,000languagesintheworld,abouttwothirdsofwhichhavenothadwrittenform.2.ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.3.Phonetic組成⑴Articulatoryphonetics發(fā)音語音學longestestablished,mostlydeveloped⑵Auditoryphonetics聽覺語音學⑶Acousticphonetics聲學語音學4.articulatoryApparatus/OrgansofSpeechPharyngealcavity–咽腔Oral...–口腔greatestsourceofmodificationofairstreamfoundhereNasal…–鼻腔5.Thetongueisthemostflexible,responsibleformorevarietiesofarticulationthananyother,theextremebackofthetonguecanberaisedtowardstheuvulaandaspeechsoundcanbethusproducedasisusedinArabicandFrench.6.Obstructionbetweenthebackofthetongueandthevelararearesultsinthepronunciationof[k]and[g],thenarrowingofspacebetweenthehardpalateandthefrontofthetongueleadstothesound[j];theobstructioncreatedbetweenthetipofthetongueandthealveolarridgeresultsinthesounds[t]and[d].7.nasalconsonants:[m]/[n]/[η]9.APhoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.10.Sequentialrules例子Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules:⑴thefirstphonememustbe/s/⑵thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/⑶thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w11.Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:Fallingtone;Risingtone;Fall-risetone;Rise-falltone三、問答題1.whatarethethreebranchesofphonetics?howdotheycontributetothestudyofspeechsound?Articulatory—describesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhowtheydiffer.Auditory-–studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,reachestheimportantconclusionthatphoneticidentityisonlyatheoreticalideal.Acoustic-–studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,thewaysoundtravelfromthespeakertothehearer.發(fā)音語音學描述了我們的發(fā)音器官如何發(fā)出語音，以及這些語音為何有所不同。聽覺語音學研究語音的物理性質(zhì)，得出了重要結(jié)論，即語音同一只是理論上的理想。聲學語音學研究語音的物理性質(zhì)，研究語音從說話者到聽話者之間的傳播方式。2.howaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?ByplaceofarticulationandBymannerofarticulation3.howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?whodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedinthedifferentbetweensay[i]and[i],[p]and[ph],aphoneticianoraphilologist?why?語音學和音位學的研究中心有何不同?語音學家和音位學家哪一個更關(guān)心清晰音的區(qū)別?為什么?Phonetics—descriptionofallspeechsoundsandtheirfinddifferences.Phonology—descriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhowsoundsfunctiontodistinguishmeaning.Aphoneticianwouldbemoreinterestedinsuchdifferencescossuchdifferenceswillnotcosdifferencesinmeaning.4.what’saphone?howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?Phone—aspeechsound,aphoneticunit.Phoneme---acollectionofabstractsoundfeatures,aphonologicalunit.Allophones---actualrealizationofaphonemeindifferentphoneticcontexts.5.whatisaminimalpairandaminimalset?whyisitimportanttoidentifytheminimalsetinalanguage?為什么區(qū)分最小對立組在一種語言中非常重要?Minimalpair—twosoundcombinationsidenticalineverywayexceptinonesoundelementthatoccursinthesameposition.除了出現(xiàn)在同一位置的一個語音成分不同外,其他部分都一樣的兩個語音組合.Minimalset—agroupofsoundcombinationswiththeabovefeature.一組具有上述特征的語音組合.Byidentifyingtheminimalpairortheminimalsetofalanguage,aphilologistcanidentifyitsphonemes.通過分析一種語言的最小對立對或最小對立組,音位學家能辨別出它的音位.6.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowonetranscriptiondiffer?Broadtranscription—onelettersymbolforonesound.Narrowtranscription—diacriticsareaddedtotheone-lettersymbolstoshowthefinerdifferencesbetweensounds.7.explainthesequentialrule,theassimilationruleandthedeletionrule.有序規(guī)則SequentialrulesRulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.同化規(guī)則AssimilationrulesTheassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby’copying’afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.省略規(guī)則DeletionruleIt’saphonologicalrulewhichtellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitsorthographicallyrepresented.ChapterThreeMorphology一、定義1.詞素MorphemeThebasicunitinthestudyofmorphologyandthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.2.自由詞素FreeMorphemeFreemorphemesareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves.3.黏著詞素BoundmorphemesBoundmorphemesarethesemorphemesthatcanotbeusedbythemselves,mustbecombinedwithothermorphemestoformwordsthatcanbeusedindependently.4.詞根RootRootisthebaseformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.5.詞綴AffixThecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.6.曲折詞綴inflectionalaffixesThemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,tense,degreeandcase.7.派生詞綴DerivationalaffixesThemanifestationofrelationbetweenstemsandaffixesthroughtheadditionofderivationalaffixes.8.詞干StemAstemistheexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded.astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.9.形態(tài)學規(guī)則MorphologicalrulesTheyarerulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformanewword.10.前綴PrefixPrefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword,exceptionsaretheprefixes‘be-‘a(chǎn)nd‘en(m)-‘11.后綴SuffixSuffixesareaddedtotheendofstems,theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.3.Inusingthemorphologicalrules,wemustguardagainstOver-generalization.二、知識點Inflectionalmorphology1.MorphologyDerivationalmorphologyFreemorphemesMorphemesRootBoundmorphemesInflectionalaffixesAffixesPrefixDerivationalaffixes2.somewordsmaybesaidtocontainarootmorpheme.Suffix4.Compoundfeatures:⑴orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasoneword,twoseparatewordswithorwithoutahypheninbetween.⑵Syntactically,thepartofspeechofacompoundisdeterminedbythelastelement.⑶semantically,themeaningofacompoundisidiomatic,notcalculablefromthemeaningsofallitscomponentChapterFourSyntax一、定義1.句子sentenceAstructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.2.語言運用LinguisticcompetenceThesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeaker.3.謂語PredicateThepartofasentencewhichcomprisesafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsayssomethingaboutthesubjectisgrammaticallycalledpredicate.4.定式子句FiniteClauseAclausethattakesasubjectandafiniteverb,andatthesametimestandsstructurallyalone.5.從屬子句EmbeddedClause(EC)Inacompletesentence,theincorporatedorsubordinateclauseisnormallycalledanEC.6.主要子句MatrixClauseInacomplexedsentence,theclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledamatrixclause.7.層次結(jié)構(gòu)HierarchicalstructureThesentencestructurethatgroupswordsintostructuralconstituentsandshowsthesyntacticcategoriesofeachstructuralconstituent,suchasNPandVP.8.語法關(guān)系GrammaticalrelationsThestructuralandlogicalfunctionalrelationsbetweeneverynounphraseandsentence.9.句法類型SyntacticcategoryAwordorphrasethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunctionsuchasthesubjectorobject.10.表層結(jié)構(gòu)S-structureAlevelofsyntacticrepresentationaftertheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement.11.深層結(jié)構(gòu)D-structureAlevelofsyntacticrepresentationbeforetheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement.12.普遍語法GeneralgrammarAsystemoflinguisticknowledgewhichconsistsofsomegeneralprinciplesandparametersaboutnaturelanguage.13.移動α規(guī)則MoveαAgeneralmovementruleaccountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.14.句法移位SyntacticmovementSyntacticmovementoccurswhenaconstituentmovesoutofitsoriginalplacetoanewposition.15.轉(zhuǎn)換原則TransformationrulesSyntacticmovementisdictatedbyrulestraditionallycalledtransformationalrules,whoseoperationmaychangethesyntacticrepresentationofasentence.16.X標桿理論X-bartheoryAgeneralandhighlyabstractschemathatcollapsesallphrasesstructurerulesintoasingleformat:X”→（Spec）X(Compl).一種泛指的、高度抽象的圖示，它把所有的詞組結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則概括為一種程式X”→（Spec）X(Compl)a:X”b:X”SpecX’SpecX’X’XcomplXcomplementNP’thestudentwholikeslinguistics’consistsofDet,NandSwithDetbeingtheSpecifier,Nthehead,Sthecomplement.NP(…)有冠詞、名詞和子句組成，冠詞是指示語，名詞是核心詞，子句是補足語。二、知識點1.syntax這個單詞源于Greek,本義是arrangement.2.我們把syntax的學習看作asystemofrulesthatgoverntheformationofgrammaticalsentence.3.Amajorgoaloflinguisticsistoshowwithaconsistentandexplicitgrammaticaltheoryhowsyntacticrulesaccountforthisgrammaticalknowledge.4.判斷題：thesyntacticrulesofanylanguagearefiniteinnumber,andyetthereisnolimittothenumberofsentencesnativespeakersofthatlanguageareabletoproduceandcomprehend.5.判斷題:Afiniteverb,informallycalledthemainverbofasentence,expressesexistence,actionoroccurrencewhichislimitedbyperson,number,tenseandmood.一個限定動詞被非正式稱為句中主要動詞，表達了人稱、數(shù)、時態(tài)、語氣限定的存在、行動或事件。6.句子的分類simplesentenceTypesofsentencescoordinateorcompoundsentenceComplexsentence簡單句---Itconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.并列句合成句-Itcontainstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,suchas“but”,”and”.ect.復合句—Itcontainstwoormoreclauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.復合句的特點：⑴Anembeddedclausefunctionsasagrammaticalunitinitsmatrixclause⑵MostembeddedclausesrequireanintroductorywordcalledaSubordinator,suchas”that”⑶Anembeddedclausemaynotfunctionasagrammaticallywell-formedsentenceifitstandsindependentlyasasimplesentenceunlessitsformchanges.子句是一個語法單位，大部分子句要帶一個被稱為從屬連詞的引導詞，如果子句作為秒年第秒年句單獨存在，它可能不是一個合乎規(guī)范的句子，除非改變他的形式。7.whenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafteranotherinasequence.8.Thehierarchicalnatureofsentencestructure句子結(jié)構(gòu)層次特點sentencesareorganizedwithwordsofthesamesyntacticcategory,suchasnounphraseNPorverbphraseVP,groupedtogether.9.ThepointsatwhichthetreebrachesatvariouslevelsarecalledBranchingnodes分叉點10.Inadditiontotheuseofstructuraltreediagrams,linguistsmayshowthehierarchicalstructureofsentencesbyusingbracketsandsubscriptlabels.11.句法類型Major…主要詞類open,canaddnewwordsLexicalcategory名、動、形、副詞N,V,Adj,AdvSyntacticMinor…次要詞類close,wordsarefixedCategories限定、助動、介、代、連、嘆Det,Aux,Prep,Pron,Conj,IntPhrasalcategoryApartfromsentencesandclauses,asyntacticcategoryusuallyreferstoaword(calledalexicalcategory)oraphrase(calledphrasalcategory)thatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunction,suchasthesubjectinasentence.12.短語類型NounPhraseNPPhrasalVerbPhraseVPCategoriesPrepositionPhrasePPAdjectivePhraseAP13.Thegrammaticalrelationsofasentenceconcernthewayeachmounphraseinthesentencerelatestotheverb,inmanycases,grammaticalrelationsrefervirtuallyto’who’does’what’to’whom’.14.weusuallyrefertothegrammaticalrelationsassubjectofanddirectobjectof.15.Combinationalrulesmustbesmallinnumbersoasnottocreateextraburdensonthehumanmemory.alsotheserulesmustbepowerfulenoughtoyieldallthepossiblesentences,andruleouttheimpossibleones組合規(guī)則一定不能太多，以免給人的記憶帶來過多的負擔，用這些規(guī)則必須能組合出所有可能的句子，而排除不可能的句子。16.rulesangenerateaninfinitenumberofsentences,andsentenceswithinfinitelength,duetotheirrecursiveproperties.Itcapturestheabilityoflanguagetogeneratemoreconstituentstoasentenceandenablesspeakerstorepeatsyntacticconstituentswithinthesamesentence.循環(huán)性體現(xiàn)了語言中的句子能有更多的成分，使說話者能在同一句子中重復一些句法成分。17.移位類型SyntacticNP-movement=t’sinvolvingthemovementofanounphrase.Movement名詞短語的移位WH-movement=Itchangesasentencefromaffirmativetointerrogative.陳述變疑問句AUX-…=themovementofanauxiliaryverbtothesentenceinitialposition.助動詞移位到句首的移位18.普遍語法的廣義原則GeneralPrinciplesofUniversalGrammar:CaseCondition和AdjacencyCondition格條件---anounphrasemusthaveCaseandCaseisassignedbyVorPtotheobjectposition,orbyAUXtothesubjectposition.名詞詞組必須有格，賓語的格是由動詞或介詞決定，而主語的格由助動詞決定。相鄰條件—acaseassignorandaCaserecipientshouldstayadjacenttoeachother,itexplainswhynootherphrasalcategorycanintervenebetweenaverbanditsdirectobject.格分派者和格接受者要相鄰。這解釋了為什么任何別的詞組類不能插到動詞和它的直接賓語之間。19.UniversalGrammarisbelievedtocontainaparameterwiththevalves增and減setontheAdjacencycondition.withEnglish-typelanguages,theAdjacencyParameterissettothe增value,whileforFrench-typelanguage,theparameterissetto減value.三、問答題1.Usetheappropriatephrasestructurerulestodrawalabeledconstituentstructuretreediagramforeachofthefollowingsentences.⑴thetoweronthehillcollapsedinthewind⑵MarypromisedJohntoseethedoctor.Chapter5Semantics一、定義1.命名論ThenamingtheoryThenamingtheory,oneoftheoldestnotionsconcerningmeaning,andalsoaveryprimitiveonewasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor,sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.2.意念論TheconceptualistviewItholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmea