Transformational Grammar轉(zhuǎn)換功能語法課件

IntroductiontoGenerativeandTransformationalGrammarLecturer:ChenMinzhe1.WhatisSyntax?Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.2.SentenceStructureAsentenceisastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.sentencesubjectpredicateJohnlikeslinguisticsWordscanbeclassifiedintodifferentlexicalcategories(traditionallycalled“partsofspeech”)accordingtotheirmeaning,inflectionanddistribution.Lexicalcategoriescanbefurtherdividedintotwokinds:majorlexicalcategoriesandminorlexicalcategories.2.LexicalCategoriesMajorlexicalcategories:Noun(N): book,boy,love,sheepVerb(V): run,read,play,buyAdjective(A): happy,tall,clearPreposition(P): about,over,onMinorlexicalcategories:Determiner(Det): the,a,this,thoseDegreeword(Deg): quite,very,moreQualifier(Qual): often,always,almostAuxiliary(Aux): must,can,should,Conjunction(Con): andbut,orInterjection(Int): oh,ah,ehInEnglishsyntacticanalysis,fourphrasalcategoriesarecommonlyrecognizedanddiscussed,namely,Nounphrase(NP):atallman,thestudentVerbphrase(VP): walkwithastickPrepositionalphrase(PP):intheparkAdjectivephrase(AP):quiterudeTwofeaturesoftheserules:Theserulesmustbesmallinnumbersoasnottocreateextraburdensonthehumanmemory.Theserulesmustbepowerfulenoughtoyieldallthepossiblesentences,andruleouttheimpossibleones.2)thecorrespondingphrasestructureruleNPDetNThisruleconveystwofacts:NPthebusDetN1)ATreeDiagram(1)ANPcanbeaDetfollowedbyaN.(2)ADetfollowedbyaNisaNP.Theleftsideofthearrowisthecategorywhosecomponentsaredefinedontherightside.Therightsideofthearrowalsoshowsthelinearorderofthesecomponents.Phrasestructurerulesmakeexplicitspeakers’knowledgeoftheorderofwordsandthegroupingofwordsintosyntacticcategories.1.S NPVP2.A.NPN(John,men)B.NPDetN(a/theman)C.NP DetAdjN(a/thetallman)D.NPAdjN(tallmen)E.NPDetNS(themanthatwearsglasses)F.NPDetAdjNPP(atallmanwithglasses)G.NPDetAdjNPPS(thetallmanwithglassesthatImetyesterday)3.A.VPV(go)B.VPVNP(buyanEnglishbook)C.VPVPP(gotoanEnglishclass)D.VPVNPPP(buyanEnglishbookinanearbystore)E.VPVS(thinkthatheshouldbuyanEnglishdictionary)F.VPVNPS(advisehimthatheshouldbuyanEnglishdictionary)G.VPVNPPPS(advisehiminawritingclassthatheshouldbuyanEnglishdictionary).3.VPV(NP)(PP)(S)4.AP Adj(PP)(S)5.PP PNP(aftertheEnglishClass)Therecursivepropertycapturestheabilityoflanguagetogeneratemoreconstituentstoasentenceandenablesspeakerstorepeatsyntacticconstituentswithinthesamesentence.Forexample,Thisisthefarmersowingthecorn,thatkeptthecockthatcrowedinthemorn,thatwakedthepriestallshavenandshorn,thatmarriedthemanalltatteredandtorn,thatkissedthemaidenallforlorn,thatmilkedthecowwiththecrumpledhorn,thattossedthedog,thatworriedthecat,thatkilledtherat,thatatethemalt,thatlayinthehousethatJackbuilt.thegirlwiththefeatherontheribbononthebrimDetNNPPPPNDetNPPPPNDetNPPPPDetNNPJohnsuggestedMarytaketheclasslinguisticNPArt.NNVNPVCVPNPVPNPSInatreediagram,S(sentence)istherootofthetree,occupyingthetopmostposition,fromwhereitbranchesintophrasalcategories,suchasNPandVP.Thephrasalcategoriesfurtherbranchintosmallersyntacticunits,suchasNandV.Thepointsatwhichthetreebranchesatvariouslevelsarecalledbranchingnodes.Hangingatthebottomofthetreeareindividualwordsormorphemes.Inadditiontorevealingalinearorder,aconstituentstructuretreehasahierarchicalstructurethatgroupswordsintostructuralconstituentsandshowsthesyntacticcategoryofeachstructuralconstituent,andconsequentlyisbelievedtomosttruthfullyillustratetheconstituentrelationshipamonglinguisticelements.1)thelinearorderofthewordsinthesentence;2)thegroupingsofwordsintoparticularsyntacticcategories;3)thehierarchicalstructureofthesyntacticcategories;4)Itstatesimplicitlywhatcombinationsofwordsarenotsyntacticcategories;6.TheMeritsofaConstituentStructureTree5)Itshowsthatsomesyntacticcategoriesarecomposedofothersyntacticcategories;6)Itreflectsthelimitlessaspectoflanguage;7.X-barTheoryIntroduction1)Pleaseobservethefollowingphrasestructurerulesfirst.1.S NPVP2.NP(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S)3.VPV(NP)(PP)(S)4.AP Adj(PP)(S)5.PP PNPPhrasestructurerule:Wefindacommonpatternwiththeserules:N,V,AandPineachphraseisarequiredlexicalitemforthephraseconcerned,i.e.,NPmustcontainN;VP,V;AP,A;PP,P.Thephrases’namescomefromtheseobligatorywordsrespectively.Theseobligatorywordsarecalledthephrasalheads;andeachphrasalcategorymusthaveahead.ThuswecancallanyphraseX-phraseorXP,anditsheadX.(XPmustcontainX,whereXPstandsrespectivelyforNP,VP,AP,orPPandXstandsrespectivelyforN,V,A,orP.)Therefore,wecangetformula6:6.XP …X…7.XP (specifier)X(complement)8.XP (Spec)X(Compl)Specifiershavebothspecialsemanticandsyntacticroles:Semantically,theyhelpmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead;Syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary.InEnglishspecifiersoccurattheleftboundaryoftheirrespectivephrases.Theyareattachedtothetoplevelofphrasestructures,totheleftofthehead.Complementsarethemselvesphrasesandprovideinformationaboutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead.TheyareattachedtotherightoftheheadinEnglish.2)Analyzethephrasesinthefollowingsentences,usingformula8:(1)Iknowthestudentwholikeslinguistics.(NP)(2)Sheisverycuriousoftheanswer.(AP)(3)Theyeachtoldastory.(VP)(4)Hestoodrightinthemiddleoftheroom.(PP)3)Illustratingformula8inatreediagram:XP=SpecXP–XComplX=SpecX–XCompl4)Torewriteformula8inanotherformula:9a.XP= SpecXP–

XP– XCompl9b.X= SpecXP–

X– XComplThesentencerule:S NPVPIntheaboveformula,asentencecombinesanNPwithaVP.Thisanalysisisbasedontheassumptionthatunlikeotherphrases,whichcontainsahead,acomplementandaspecifier,Sdoesnothaveaninternalstructure.Manylinguistsnowadaysbelievethatsentences,likeotherphrases,alsohavetheirownheads.Theytakeanabstractcategoryinflection(dubbed“Infl”)astheirheads,whichillustratesthesentence’stenseandagreement.Likeotherphrases,InflPtakesanNPasitsspecifierandaVPasitscomplement.Toshowitinatreediagram:InflP=

(=S)NPInflP–InflVPAnalyzethefollowingtwosentences:(1)Aboyfoundthebook.(2)Aboywillfindthebook.InflP=(=S)AboyfoundthebookDetNNPVVPPstInflInflP–DetNNPInflP=(=S)AboywillfindthebookDetNNPVVPInflInflP–DetNNP9.SentenceRelatedness1.IntroductionSentencesmayberelatedinvariousways:1)Theymayhavethesamephrasestructure,differingonlyintheirwords,whichaccountsfortheirdifferingmeaning.Forexample,(1)Theboatsaileduptheriver.(2)Agirllaughedatthemonkey.(3)Thesheepdogrolledinthemud.(4)Thelionsroaredinthejungle.Etc.TheboatsaileduptheriverAgirllaughedatthemonkeyDetNNPPPPVVPNDetNPS2)Twosentenceswithdifferentmeaningsmaycontainthesamewordsinthesameorder,differingonlyinstructure.Forexample,(5)Theboysawthemanwiththetelescope.TheboysawthemanwiththetelescopeDetNNPPPPVVPNDetNPSNP=DetNP–N(5)aTheboysawthemanwiththetelescopeDetNNPPPPVNDetNPSVP–DetNPN(5)bVP=3)Twosentencesmaydifferinstructure,possiblywithsmalldifferencesingrammaticalmorphemes,butwithnodifferenceinmeaning.Forexample,(6a)Thefatherweptsilently.(6b)Thefathersilentlywept.(7a)Theastronomersawaquasarwithatelescope.(7b)Withatelescopetheastronomersawaquasar.(8a)MaryhiredBill.(8b)BillwashiredbyMary.(9a)Iknowthatyouknow.(9b)Iknowyouknow.4)Twosentencesmayhavestructuraldifferencesthatcorrespondsystematicallytomeaningdifference.Forexample,(10a)Theboyissleeping.(10b)Istheboysleeping?(11a)Theboycansleep.(11b)Cantheboysleep?(12a)Theboywillsleep.(12b)Willtheboysleep?(13a)Themanisinthehouse.(13b)Isthemaninthehouse?Thedifferenceinthepositionoftheverbalelementsis,can,willcorrespondstowhetherthesentenceisdeclarativeorinterrogative.Phrasestructurerulesaccountformuchsyntacticknowledge,buttheydonotaccountforthefactthatMaryhiredBillhasthesamemeaningasBillwashiredbyMary,butadifferentmeaningthanMarywashiredbyBill.Nordotheyaccountforthesystematicdifferencebetweenstatementsandtheircorrespondinginterrogatives.2.TransformationalRulesConsiderthetreediagramsofthefollowingtwosentences:(1)Thefatherweptsilently.(2)Thefathersilentlywept.ThefatherweptsilentlyThefathersilentlywept(1)(2)VAdvNDetVPNPSDetNNPAdvVVPSThephrasestructurerulesplacetheadverbattheendoftheVP,therebyaccountingfor(1).Howcan(2)beaccountedfor?Canwesuggestaphrasestructurerulewithtwooptionaladverbslikethefollowingtoaccountfor(2):VP (Adv)V(NP)(PP)(Adv)Thenwearefacedwiththeunacceptablepossibilityofgeneratingungrammaticalstringssuchas:(3)Thefathercleverlyweptbitterly.AsolutiontothisproblemistoallowthephrasestructurerulestogeneratetheadverbinVPfinalposition,andhaveanotherformaldevice,calledatransformationalrule,movetheadverbinfrontoftheverb,thusderivingthestructurethatrepresents(2)fromthestructurethatrepresents(1).Thebasicsentencesofthelanguage,whosephrasestructuretreesarecalleddeepstructures,arespecifiedbythephrasestructurerules.Variantsonthosebasicsentencestructuresarederivedviatransformation.Thestructuresofsentencesthatweactuallyspeak--towhichtherulesofphonologyareapplied–arecalledsurfacestructure.Ifnotransformationsapplythendeepstructureandsurfacestructurearethesame;iftransformationsapplythensurfacestructureistheendresultafteralltransformationshavehadtheireffect.Muchsyntacticknowledgenotrevealedbyphrasestructurerulesisaccountedforbytransformations,whichalterphrasestructuretreesbymoving,adding,ordeletingelements.Inparticular,familiesofstructurallyrelatedsentencesarerevealedbyvirtueofhavingthesamedeepstructure,withsurfacestructuredifferencescreatedbytransformationalrules.T1)Moveadverbs(1)Thefatherweptsilently.(2)Thefathersilentlywept.T2)MoveaPPwhenitoccurimmediatelyundertheVP(3)Theastronomersawaquasarwithatelescope.(4)Withatelescopetheastronomersawaquasar.Transformationsactonstructures,irrespectiveofthewordsthattheycontain.Theyarestructuredependent.A.Withatelescope,theboysawtheman.B.Theboysawthemanwithatelescope.T3)Deletethatwhenitprecedesasentenceindirectobjectposition,butnotinsubjectposition.(5)Iknowthatyouknow.(6)Iknowyouknow.(7)Thatyouknowbothersme.(8)Youknowbothersme.T4)MovetheAuxtothefrontofthesentence.(9a)Themanisinthehouse.(9b)Isthemaninthehouse?(10a)Theboyissleeping.(10b)Istheboysleeping?(11a)Theboycansleep.(11b)Cantheboysleep?(12a)Theboywillsleep.(12b)Willtheboysleep?Considernowthefollowingdeclarative/interrogativesetsofsentences:(13a)Theboywhoissleepingwasdreaming.(13b)Wastheboywhoissleepingdreaming?(13c)Istheboywhosleepingwasdreaming?(14a)Theboywhocansleepwilldream.(14b)Willtheboywhocansleepdream?(14c)Cantheboywhosleepwilldream?T4)Revisedas:MovetheAuxiliaryofthetopmostS,thatis,theonefollowingtheentirefirstNP,thatappearsatthefrontofthesentence,notsimplythefirstAuxiliaryinthesentencetothefrontofthesentence.Phrasestructurerulesneedonlygeneratedeclarativesentencesasdeepstructures.Atransformationderivesthesurfacestructureofthecorrespondinginterrogatives.Morethanonetransformationmayactonadeepstructure.Forexample,(15)Isthefathersilentlyweeping?ThefatherisweepingsilentlyVAdvDetNNPAuxVPSDeepstructure(fromPhraseStructureRules)15aAdverbMovingTransformationThefatherissilentlyweepingVAdvDetNNPAuxVPSIntermediateUnderlyingStructure15bQuestionTransformationIsthefathersilentlyweepingVAdvDetNNPAuxVPSSurfaceStructure15cT5)MovethewhphrasetothebeginningofthesentenceForexample,(16)Whatlanguagescanyouspeak?YoucanspeakwhatlanguagesNWh-NPVVPInflNPPronModelVSCCPAuxiliarymovement:MoveInfltoCCanyoue

speakwhatlanguagesNWh-NPVVPInflNPPronModelVSCCPInflWhMovement:MoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCPwhatlanguagescanyoue1

speake2

NPVVPInflNPPronModelVSCCP–InflCP=SpecNPT6)Insertinterrogatived