語言學(xué)講解和名詞解釋

語言學(xué)講解和名詞解釋語言學(xué)講解和名詞解釋語言學(xué)講解和名詞解釋語言學(xué)講解和名詞解釋編制僅供參考審核批準(zhǔn)生效日期地址：電話：傳真:郵編:第一章Chapter1InvitationstoLinguisticsTeachingaims:letthestudentshavethegeneralideaaboutlanguageandlinguistics.Teachingdifficulties:designfeaturesoflanguage;someimportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsTeachingprocedureslanguageWhystudylanguage為什么學(xué)習(xí)語言Atoolforcommunication交流的工具Anintegralpartofourlifeandhumanity人類生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分.Ifwearenotfullyawareofthenatureandmechanismofourlanguage,wewillbeignorantofwhatconstitutesouressentialhumanity.如果不能完全理解語言的本質(zhì)和結(jié)構(gòu),我們就會對人類的本質(zhì)一無所知.Whatislanguage什么是語言differentsensesoflanguage語言的不同意義1.whatapersonsays(concreteactofspeech)aperson’sconsistentwayofspeakingorwritingaparticularlevelofspeakingorwriting.colloquiallanguageanabstractsystem2.Awebster’sNewDictionraryoffersafrequentlyusedsenseoftheword“l(fā)anguage”:a.humanspeech人類的言語b.theabilitytocommunicatebythismeans通過言語來交流的能力c.asystemofvocalsoundsandcombinationsofsuchsoundstowhichmeaningisattributed,usedfortheexpressionorcommunicationofthoughtsandfeelings;用來表達(dá)或交流思想和感覺的一套聲音及這些聲音互相結(jié)合的系統(tǒng)d.thewrittenrepresentationofsuchasystem系統(tǒng)的文字表達(dá)3.thebarestofdefinition,languageisameansofverbalcommunication.最簡潔的定義:語言是言語交流的一種方式.Languageisinstrumentalinthatcommunicatingbyspeakingorwritingisapurposefulact.Itissocialandconventionalinthatlanguageisasocialsemiosticandcommunicationcanonlytakeplaceeffectivelyifalltheusersshareabroadunderstandingofhumaninteractionincludingsuchassociatedfactorsasnonverbalcues,motivation,andsocio-culturalroles.Languagedistinguishesusfromanimals.因為說和寫的交流方式是一種有目的的行為,所以語言是實用性的;因為語言是社會符號,語言的交流只能在所有參與者廣泛理解了人類的那些非言語的暗示,動機(jī),社會文化角色等等互相關(guān)聯(lián)的因素之后才能有效進(jìn)行,因此語言又是社會的,約定俗成的.語言使人類區(qū)別于動物.definitions一.Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.WhatiscommunicationAprocessinwhichinformationistransmittedfromasource(senderorspeaker)toagoal(receiverorlistener).Asystem----sinceelementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrulessystematically,ratherthanrandomly.Theycannotbearrangedatwill..Hethetablecleaned.(×)bkli(×)WhydowesaylanguageisarbitraryArbitrary----thereisnointrinsic(logic)connectionbetweenalinguisticformanditsmeaning,betweenthesoundsthatpeopleuseandtheobjectstowhichthesesoundsrefer.Thisexplainsandisexplainedbythefactthatdifferentlanguagehavedifferentwordsforthesameobject,itisgoodillustrationofthearbitrarynatureoflanguage.itisonlyourtacitagreementofutteranceandconceptatworkandnotanyinnaterelationshipboundupintheutterance.Atypicalexampletoillustratethearbitraryoflanguageisafamousquotationfromshakepeare’splay:”RomeoandJuliet:Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet.一朵玫瑰不管它叫什么名字,聞起來都是一樣香的.Symbols----wordsarejustthesymbolsassociatedwithobjects,actions,andideasbynothingbutconvention.Namely,peopleusethesoundsorvovalformstosymbolizewhattheywishtoreferto.Vocal--------theprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound,nomatterhowwelldevelopedtheirwritingsystemsare.Writingsystemscamemuchlaterthanthespokenforms.Thefactthatsmallchildrenlearnandcanonlylearntospeakandlistenbeforetheywriteorreadalsoindicatesthatlanguageisprimarilyvocal,ratherthanwritten.Writingsystemscameintobeingmuchlaterthanthespokenforms.Peoplewithlittleornoliteracycanalsobecompetentlanguageusers.Human----languageishuman-specific.Humanbeingshavedifferentkindsofbrainsandvocalcapacity.“LanguageAcquisitionDevice”(LAD)二.Whatcharacteristicsoflangaugedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,comprenhensivedefinitionoflanguageLanguageisarule-governedsystem;langaugeisbasicallyvocal;langaugeisarbitrary;langagueisusedforhumancommunication.Designfeaturesoflanguage語言的結(jié)構(gòu)特征Designfeatures------referstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.Theyarearbitrariness,duality,creativity/productivity,displacement,cluturaltransmissionandinterchangeability.Designfeatures-----arefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguages,suchasarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,culturaltransmission,etc.(指決定了人類語言性質(zhì)的特征.例如任意性,二重性,創(chuàng)造性,移位性,文化轉(zhuǎn)移性等.)

TheAmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures.Whatisarbitrariness任意性a.arbitrariness----arbitrariness(任意性):onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.(人類語言的本質(zhì)特征之一,指語言符號的形式與意義之間沒有自然的聯(lián)系.)

ItwasdiscussedbySaussurelinkbetweenthemisamatterofconvention..“house”uchi(Japanese)Mansion(French)房子(Chinese)arbitrarybetweenthesoundofamorphemeanditsmeaning語言的音和義之間的任意性a.By“arbitrary”,wemeanthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.語言的意義和語音之間沒有邏輯關(guān)系。Agogmightbeapigifonlythefirstpersonorgroupofpersonshaduseditforagig.Languagethereforeislargelyarbitrary.b.Butlanguageisnotabsolutelyseemtobesomesound-meaningassociation,ifwethinkofechowords,like“bang””crash””roar””rumble””cakle”,whicharemotivatedinacertainsense.”onomatopoeia擬聲詞---wordsthatsoundlikethesoundstheydescribe那些發(fā)音像它們的描寫的聲音的詞c.somecompounds(wordscompoundedtobeoneword)arenotentirelyarbitaryeither.“type”and”write”areopaqueorunmotivatedwords,while“type-writer”islessso,ormoretransparentormotivatedthanthewordsthatmakeit.sowecansay“arbitrariness”isamatterofdegree.arbitraryandonometopoeiceffectmayworkatthesametime.任意性和擬聲可以同時起作用。Eg.Themurmuroushauntoffliesonsummereves.夏日黃昏，群蠅嗡嗡地非。Arbitraryatthesyntacticlevel句法上的任意性Accordingtosystematic-functionalistsandAmericanfunctionlists,languageisnotarbitraryatthesyntacticlevel.對于系統(tǒng)功能語言學(xué)家和美國功能語言學(xué)家來說，語言在句法上是非任意的。Syntax-----itreferstothewaysthatsentencesareconstructedaccordingtothegrammarofarrangement.句法就是依據(jù)語法安排造句之法。Aribrtaryandconvention任意性和約定性Thelinkbetweenalinguisticsignanditsmeaningisamatterofconvention.語言學(xué)上的符號和它的意義之間是約定俗成的關(guān)系。Theothersideofcoinofarbitrariness,namely,conventionality.任意性的相反面，即約定性。conventionality----Itmeansthatinanylanguagetherearecertainsequencesofsoundsthathaveaconventionallyacceptedmeaning.Thosewordsarecustomarilyusedbyallspeakerswiththesameintendedmeaningandunderstoodbyalllistenersinthesameway.Arbitrainessoflangaugemakesitpotentiallycreative,andconventionalityoflanguagemakeslearningalanguagelaborious.任意性賦予語言潛在的創(chuàng)造力，而語言的約定性又使學(xué)習(xí)語言變得費力。Therearetwodifferentschoolsofbeliefconcerningarbitrariness.Mostpeople,especiallystructurallinguistsbelievethatlanguageisarbitrarybynature.Otherpeople,however,holdthatlanguageisiconic,thatis,thereisadirectrelationorcorrespondencebetweensoundandmeaning,suchasonomatopoeia.(cuckoo;crash)Forthemajorityofanimalsignals,theredoesappeartobeaclearconnectionbetweentheconveyedmessageandthesignalusedtoconveyit,Andforthem,thesetsofsignalsusedincommunicationisfinite.b.duality(二重性):---onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchasunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsoftheandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.(人類語言的本質(zhì)特征之一,指擁有兩層結(jié)構(gòu)的這種特性,底層結(jié)構(gòu)是上層結(jié)構(gòu)的組成成分,每層都有自身的組合規(guī)則.)duality----languageissimultaneouslyorganizedattwolevelsorlayers,namely,thelevelofsoundsandthatofmeaning.thehigherlevel----wordswhicharemeaningfulthelowerorthebasiclevel----soundswhicharemeaningless,butcanbegroupedandregroupedintowords.Dog:woof(butnot“w-oo-f”)Thisdualityoflevelsis,infact,oneofthemosteconomicalfeaturesofhumanlanguage,sincewithalimitedsetofdistinctsoundswearecapableofproducingaverylargenumberofsoundcombinations.words)whicharedistinctinmeaning.TheprincipleofeconomyLinguistsrefer“duality”(ofstructure)tothefactthatinalllanguagesofarinvestigated,onefindstwolevelsofstructureorpatterning.Atthefirst,higherlevel,languageisanalyzedintermsofcombinationsofmeaningfulunits(suchasmorphemes,wordsetc.).Atthesecond,lowerlevel,itisseenasasequenceofsegmentswichlackanymeaninginthemselves,butwhichcombinetoformunitsofmeaning.AccordingtoHUZHUANGLIN,languageisasystemoftwosetsofstructuresortwolevels,oneofsoundandtheotherofmeaning.Thisisimprotantfortheworkingsoflanguage.Asamllnumberofsenmanticwords/units,andtheseunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.這些意義單位組成無數(shù)個句子。(notethatwehavedictionariesofwords,butnodictionaryofsentences!).Dualitymakesitpossibleforapersontotalkaboutanythingwithinhisknowledge.Noanmialcommunicationsystemenjoysthisduality.Totalkaboutdualitywemustnoticethatlanguageishierarchical.說到語言的二重性，我們必須注意語言的等級性。lic.Creativity----languageisresourceful.Itmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.(novelutterancesarecontinuallybeingcreated.)non-humansignals,ontheotherhand,appearstohavelittleflexibility.creativity(創(chuàng)造性):onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,bycreativitywemeanlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.(指語言的能產(chǎn)性,因為語言有二重性和遞歸性.)productivity----productivityreferstotheabilitytoconstructandunderstandanindefinitelylargenumberofsentencesinone’snativelanguage,includingthosethathasneverheardbefore,butthatareappropriatetothespeakingsituation.人們能夠利用語言中原有的規(guī)則來理解從未碰到過的語言符號的特征。.anexperimentofbeecommunication:Theworkerbee,normallyabletocommunicatethelocationofanectarsource,willfailtodosoifthelocationisreally‘new’.Inoneexperiment,ahiveofbeeswasplacedatthefootofaradiotowerandafoodsourceatthetop.Tenbeesweretakentothetop,shownthefoodsource,andsentofftotelltherestofthehiveabouttheirfind.Themessagewasconveyedviaabeedanceandthewholegangbuzzedofftogetthefreefood.Theyflowaroundinalldirections,butcouldn’tlocatethefood.Theproblemmaybethatbeecommunicationregardinglocationhasafixedsetofsignals,allofwhichrelatedtohorizontadistance.Thebeecannotcreatea‘new’messageindicatingverticaldistance.Noonehasneversaidorheard“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthesmallhotelbedwithanAfricangibbon”,buthecansayitwhennecessary,andhecanunderstanditinrightregister.Differentfromartisticcreativity,productivitynevergoesoutsidethelanguage,thusproductivityisalsocalled“rule-boundcreativity”(byN.Chomsky)Productivityisuniquetohumanlanguage.創(chuàng)造性是人類語言的獨一無二的特征。d.displacement(移位性):onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichmeanshumanlanguageenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresentcintimeandspace,atthemomentofcommunication.(指人類語言可以讓使用者來表示在說話時(時間和處所)并不存在的物體,時間和觀點.)Beecommunication:Whenaworkerbeefindsasourceofnectarandreturnstothehive,itcanperformacomplexdanceroutinetocommunicatetotheotherbeesthelocationofthisnectar.Dependingonthetypeofdance(rounddancefornearbyandtail-waggingdance,withvariabletempo,forfurtherawayandhowfar),Theotherbeescanworkputwherethisnewlydiscoveredfeastcanbefound.Beecommunicationhasdisplacementinanextremelylimitedform.However,itmustbethemostrecentfoodsource.Displacement,asoneofthedesignfeaturesofthehumanlanguag,referstothefactthatonecantalkaboutthingsthatarenotpresent,aseasilyashedoesthingspresent.Inotherwords,onecanrefertorealorunrealthings,thingsofthepast,ofthepresent,ofthefuture.人類語言可以被用來指不在當(dāng)時當(dāng)?shù)匕l(fā)生的事情，這就使得人類能夠談?wù)撛S多事情而不受時空限制。Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeak,thatmeanslanguagehasthefeatureofdisplacement.Languageitselfcanbetalkedabouttoo.Whenaman,foresxample,iscryingtoawoman,aboutsomething,itmightbesomethingthathadoccurred,orsomethingthatisoccuring,orsoemthingthatistooccur.Whenadogisbarking,however,youcandicideitisbarkingforsomethingoratsomeonethatexistsnowandthere.Itcounldn’tbebow-wowingsorrowfullyforabonetobelost.Thebee’ssystem,nonetheless,hasasamllshareof“displacement”,butit’sanunspeakabletinysharee.Culturaltransmission----genetictransmissionYouacquirealanguageinaculturewithotherspeakersandnotfromparentalgenes.Theprocesswherebylanguageispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextisdescribedasculturaltransmission.Thismeansthatlanguageisnotbiologicallytransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration,butthatthedetailsofthelinguisticsystemmustbelearnedanewbyeachspeaker.Itistruethatthecapacityforlanguageinhumanbeings(N.Chomskycalledit“l(fā)anguageacquisitiondevice”,orLAD)hasageneticbasis,buttheparticularlanguagapersonlearnstospeakisaculturaloneotherthanageneticonelkiethedog’sbarkingsystem.（人類學(xué)習(xí)語言的能力有遺傳基礎(chǔ)，但任何詳細(xì)的語言系統(tǒng)都必須通過教授和學(xué)習(xí)才能獲得，這說明語言具有文化傳遞性，它不是靠人類的本能而獲得的。）Ifahumanbegingisbroughtupinisolationhecannotacquirelangauge.TheWolfChildrearedbythepackofwolvesturnedouttospeakthewolf’sroaring“tongue”whenhewassaved.Helearnedthereafter,withnosmalldifficulty,theABCofacertainhumanlanguage.Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.動物是靠其基因來傳遞其呼叫系統(tǒng)的。erchangeability互換性interchangeablitymeansthatanyhumanbegingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.Thoughsomepeoplesuggestthatthereisdifferatiationintheactuallanguageuse,inotherwords,menandwomenmaysaydifferentthings,yetinprinciplethereisnosound,orwordorsentencethatamancanutterandawomancannot,orviceversa.Ontheotherhand,apersoncanbethespeakerwhiletheotherpersonisthelistenerandastheturnmovesontothelistener,hecanbethespeakerandthefirstspeakeristolisten.Itisturn-takingthatmakessocialcommunicationpossibleandacceptable.Somemalebirds,however,uttersomecallswhichfemalesdonot(orcannot).Whenadogbarkds,alltheneighboringdogsbark.Thenpeoplearoundcanhardlytellwhichdog/dogsis/are“speaking”andwhichlistening.WhatfeatruesofhumanlangaugehavebeenspecifiedbyC.HocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanyanimalcommunicationsystemArbitrainess----asignofsophisticationonlyhumansarecapableof.Duality----afeaturetotallylackinginanyanimalcommunication.Creativity----animalsarequitelimitedinthemessagestheyareabletosend.Displacement----noanimalcantalkaboutthingsremovedfromtheimmediatesituation.Culturaltransmission-----detailsofhumanlanguagesystemaretaughtandlearnedwhileanimalsarebornwiththecapacitytosendoutcertainsignalsasameansoflimitedcommunicaiton.WhydolinguistssaylangaugeishumanspecificFirstofall,huanlanguagehassix“designfeatures”whichanimalcommunicationsysmtensdonothave,atleastnotinthetruesenseofthem.Secondly,linguistshavedonealottryingtoteachanimalssuchaschimpanzeestospeakahumanlanguagebuthaveachievednothinginspiring.Washoe,afemalechimpanzee,wasbroughtuplikeahumanchildbyBeatniceandAlanGardner.Shewastaught“Americansignlanguage”,andlearnedalittlethatmadetheteacehrshappybutdidnotmakethelinguistscirclehappy,forfewbelievedinteachingchampanzees.Thirdly,ahumanchildrearedamonganimalscannotspeakahumanlanguage,notenenwhenheistakenbackandtaughttodoso.Originoflanguage語言的起源functionsoflanguage語言的功能Jakobsondifinedthesixprimaryfactorsofanyspeechevent,namely:speaker,addressee,context,message,code,contact.雅科布遜定義了言語行為的六個要素：說話者，受話者，語境，信息，語碼，接觸。Jakobsonestablishedawell-knownframeworkoflanguagefunctionsbasedonthesixkeyelementsofcommunication,namely:Referentialfuntion-----toconveymessageandimformation所指功能：傳達(dá)信息Poeticfuntion-----toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake詩學(xué)功能：完全就語言而語言Emotivefuntion----toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions感情功能：表達(dá)態(tài)度、感覺和感情Conativefuntion----topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandentreaties意動功能：通過命令和懇求去說服和影響他人Phaticfuntion----toestablishcommunionwithothers交感功能：與他人建議交流Metalingualfunction-----toclearupintentions,wordsandmeanings元語言功能：弄清意圖、詞語和意義Theycorrespondtosuchcommunicationelementsascontext,message,addresser,addressee,contactandcode.它們與一些交流活動的元素相對應(yīng)，如語境，信息，說話者，受話者，接觸和語碼等。Hallidayproposesatheoryofmetafunctionsoflanguage,thatis,languagehas:韓禮德提出語言元功能的理論，即語言有：Ideationalfunction----constructsamodelofexperienceandconstructslogicalrelations;概念功能：建構(gòu)了經(jīng)驗?zāi)Ｐ秃瓦壿嬯P(guān)系Interpersonalfunction-----enactssocialrelationships人際功能：反映了社會關(guān)系textualfunctions----createsrelevancetocontext.語篇功能：創(chuàng)立了語言與語境的關(guān)系Hallidayproposedsevencategoriesoflanguagefunctionsbyobservingchildlanguagedevelopment,thatis,instrumental,regulatory,represnetational,interactional,personal,heuristicandimaginative.他通過觀察兒童語言的發(fā)展提出了語言的七種功能，他們是工具功能，控制功能，表達(dá)功能，交互功能，自指性功能，教導(dǎo)功能和想象功能。Function(功能):theuseoflanguagetocommunicate,tothink,functionsinclucleimformativefunction,interpersonalfunction,performativefunction,emotivefunction,phaticcommunion,recreationalfunctionandmetalingualfunction.(用語言交流,思考等.語言功能包括信息功能,人際功能,施為功能,感情功能,交感性功能,娛樂性功能和元語言功能.)languagehasatleastsevenfuntions:patic,directive,informative,interrogative,expressive,evocativeandperformative.AccoridingtoWangGang(1988),langaugehasthreemainfunctions:atoolofcommunications,atoolwherebypeoplelearnabouttheworld;atoolbywhichpeoplecreatart.Informativefunction信息功能WhatistheinformativefunctionLangaugeservesan“informatviefunction”whenusedtotellsomething,characterizedbytheuseofdeclarativesentences.Informativestatementsareoftenlabelledastrueorfalse.AccordingtoP.Grice’s“cooperativeprinciple”,oneoughtnottoviolatethe“maximofQuality”,whenheisinformingatall.Informativefunctionisalsocalledideationalfunctionintheframeworkoffunctionalgrammar.在功能語法的框架中，信息功能也被稱為概念功能。Hallidaynotesthat“l(fā)angaugeservesfortheexpressionof‘content’”:thatis,ofthespeaker’sexperienceoftherealworld,includingtheinnerworldofhisownconsciousness.韓禮德指出“語言為表達(dá)‘內(nèi)容’服務(wù)：這個‘內(nèi)容’就是說話者的真實的經(jīng)驗世界，包括他自我意識的內(nèi)部世界?！癐trequiressomeintellectualefforttoseetheminanyotherwaythanthatwhichourlanguagesuggeststous.它需要人類的指揮從其他的不同角度看待事物，而不是按照語言提示給我們的那樣去做。Interpersonalfunction人際功能Performativefunction施為功能Thismeanspeoplespeakto“dothings”orperformactions.Oncertainoccasionstheutteranceitselfasanactionismoreimportantthanwhatwordsorsoundsconstitutetheutteredsentence.Thejudge’simprisonmentsentence,thepresident’swarorindependencedeclaration,etc,areperfomatives.Emotivefunction感情功能Phaticcommunion交感性談話phaticcommunion(交感性談話):onefunctionofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothesocialinteractionoflanguage.(人類語言的功能之一,指語言的社會交互性.)broadlyspeaking,phaticfuncionreferstoexpressionsthathelpdefineandmaintaininterpersonalrelations,suchasslangs,jokes,jargons,ritualisticexchanges,switchestosocialandregionaldialects.概況地說，交感性功能是指那些有助于說明，維持人際關(guān)系的表達(dá)，如俚語，玩笑，行業(yè)話，禮節(jié)性的交際，社會地域方言的轉(zhuǎn)化等等。Thephaticfunctionreferstolanguagebeingusedforsettingupacertainatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontactsthanforexchangingimformationorideas.Greetings,farewellsandcommentsontheweatherinEnglishandclotinginChinesealllservethisfunction.Muchofthephaticlangauge(eg,“howareyou”“fine,thanks.”)isinsincereiftakenliterally,butitisimportant.Ifyoudon’tsay“hello”toafriendyoumeet,orifyoudon’tanswerhis“hi”,youruinyourfriendship.Recreationalfunction娛樂性功能Whatistheevocativefunction什么是娛樂性功能The“evocativefunction”istheuseoflanguagetocreatcertainfeelingsinthehearer.Itsaimis,forexample,toamuse,startle,antagonize,soothe,worryorplease.Jokes(notpracticaljokes,though)aresupposedtoamuseorentertainthelisterner;advertisingtourgecustomerstopurchasecertaincommodities;propagandatoinfluencepublicopinion.Obviously,theexpressiveandtheevocativefuntionsoftengotogether,.youmayexpress,forexample,yourpersonalfeelingsaboutapoliticalissurebutendupbyevokingthesamefeelingin,orimposingiton,yourlistener.That’saslothecasewiththeotherwayround.Metalingualfunction元語言功能metalanguage(元語言):certainkindsoflinguisticsignsortermsfortheanalysisanddescriptionofparticularstudies.用以講述或描述另一語言等的語言或一套符號。WhatisthedirectfunctionThe“directionfunction”meansthatlanguagemaybeusedtogetthehearertodosomething.Mostimperativesentencesperformthisfuntion..“Tellmetheresultwhenyoufinish.”O(jiān)thersyntacticstructuresorsentencesofothersortscan,accordingtoJ.AustinandJ.Searle’s“Indirectspeechacttheory”atleast,servethepurposeofdirectiontoo,,“IfIwereyou,Iwouldhaveblushedtothebottomofmyears!”Whatistheinterrogativefunction什么是疑問功能Whenlanguageisusedtoobtaininformation,itservesan“interrogativefunction”.Thisincludesallquestionsthatexpectreplies,statements,imperativesetc.accordingtothe“indirectsppechacttheory”,mayhavethisfunctionaswell,.“I’dliketoknowyoubetter.”Thismaybringforthalotofpersonalinformation.Notethatrhetorialquestionsmakeanexception,sincetheydemandnoanswer,atleastnotthereader’s/listerner’sanswer.WhatistheexpressivefunctionThe“expressivefunction”istheuseoflanguagetorevealsomethingaboutthefeelingsorattitudesofthespeaker.Subconsciousemotionalejaculationsaregoodexamples,like“Goodheavens!”“MyGod!”.sentenceslike“I’msorryaboutthedelay”canserveasgoodexamplestoo,thoughinasubtleway.Whilelanguageisusedfortheinformativefuncitontopassjudgementonthetruthorfalsehoodofstatements,languageusedfortheexpressivefunctionevoluates,appraisesorassertsthespeaker’sownattitudes.islinguisticsLinguisticsisgenerallyascientificstudyoflanguage.Itisamajorbranchofsocialscience.Linguisticsstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanysociety,butthelanguageofallhumansociety,languageingeneral.語言學(xué)是對語言進(jìn)行科學(xué)地研究的學(xué)科。它所研究的并不是某種特定的語言，而是人類所有的語言的共性。Ascientificstudyisonewhichisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationofdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.observation------generalization-----hypothesis------testedbyfurtherobservation------theoryAlinguist,though,doesnothavetoknowandusealargenumberoflanguage,buttoinvestigatehoweachlanguagisconstructed.Heisalsoconcernedwithhowalanguagvariesfromdialecttodialect,fromclasstoclass,howitchangesfromcenturytocentury,howchildrenacquiretheirmothertongue,andperhapshowapersonlearnsorshouldlearnaforeignlanguage.Inshort,linguisticsstudiesthegeneralprincipleswhereuponallhumanlanguagesareconsturctedandoperateassystemsofcommunicationintheirsocietiesorcommunities.Explainthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Lingusiticsinvestigatesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguageingeneral.Linguisticstduyisscientificbecauseitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationofauthenticlanguagedata.Noseriouslinguisticconclusionisreacheduntilafterthelingusisthasdonethefollowingthreethings:observingthewaylanguageisactuallyused,formulatingsomehyphotheses,andtestingthesehypothesesagainstlinguisticfactstoprovetheirvalidity.WhatmakeslinguisticsascienceSincelinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage,itoughttobaseitselfuponthesystematic,investigationoflanguagedatawhichaimsatdiscoveringthetruenatureoflanguageanditsunderlyingsystem.Tomakesenseofthedata,alinguistusuallyhasconceivedsomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure,tobecheckedagainsttheobservedorobservablefacts.Inordertomakehisanalysisscientific,alinguistisusuallyguidedbyfourprinciple:exhaustiveness,consistency,economyandobjectivity.(1)Exhaustivenessmeansheshouldgatherallthematerialsrelevanttothestudyandgivethemanadequateexplaination,inspiteofthecomplicatedness.Heistoleavenolinguistic“stone”unturned.(2)Consistencymeansthereshouldbenocountradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatement.(3)Economymeansaliguistshouldpursuebrevityintheanalysiswhenisispossible.(4).Objectivityimpliesthatsincesomepeoplemaybesubjectiveinthestudy,alinguistshoudbe(orsoundatleast)objective,matter-of-face,faithfultoreality,sothathisworkconstituespartofthelinguisticsresearch.Mainbranches(scope)oflinguistics語言學(xué)的主要分支Lingusiticsshouldincludeatleastfivebranches,namely:phonologic,morphologic,syntactic,senmanticandpragmatic.語言學(xué)至少包括五個分支：語音、形態(tài)、句法、語義、和語用。Generallingusitics普通語言學(xué)-------thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.Thisdealswiththebasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsappliableinanylinguisticstudy.把語言作為一個整體來研究的學(xué)科被稱為普通語言學(xué)，它是語言學(xué)研究中探索人類語言的普遍性質(zhì)和規(guī)律的學(xué)科。phonetics語音學(xué)-----studiesspeechsounds,includingtheproductionofspeech,thatishowspeechsoundsareactuallymade,transmittedandreceived,thesoundsofspeech,thedescriptionandclassificationofspeechsounds,wordsandconnectedspeech,etc.研究語音，包括言語的產(chǎn)生（也就是言語在現(xiàn)實中怎樣形成，傳遞和接受），言語的聲音，語音的描寫和分類，詞語和話語連接等等。Phonetics----Thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticcommunityledtoestablishmentofabrachoflinguisticscalledphonetics.Howspeechareproducedandclassified.phonology音系學(xué)（音位學(xué)）-----studiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.Itdealswiththesoundsystemofalanguagebytreatingphonemeasthepointo