語言學第六章筆記和習題1

Chapter6Pragmatics----thestudyoflanguageinuseorlanguagecommunication;thestudyoftheuseofcontexttomakeinferenceaboutmeaning.----thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenthetwolinguisticstudiesofmeaning-semanticsandpragmaticsSemanticsstudiesliteral,structuralorlexicalmeaning,whilepragmaticsstudiesnon-literal,implicit,intendedmeaning,orspeakersmeaning.Semanticsiscontextindependent,decontextualized,whilepragmaticsiscontextdependent,contextualized.Semanticsdealswithwhatissaid,whilepragmaticsdealswithwhatisimplicatedorinferred.WhatessentiallydistinguishsemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsideredIfitisnot,itissemantics.Ifitis,itispragmatics.Pragmaticanalysisofmeaningisfirstandforemostconcernedwiththestudyofwhatiscommunicatedbyaspeaker/writerandinterpretedbyalistener/reader.Analysisofintentionalmeaningnecessarilyinvolvestheinterpretationofwhatpeopledothroughlanguageinaparticularcontext.Intendedmeaningmayormaynotbeexplicitlyexpressed.Pragmaticanalysisalsoexploreshowlisteners/readersmakeinferencesaboutwhatiscommunicated.SomebasicnotionsinPragmaticsContextPragmaticsvs.semanticsSentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaningContextContext----abasicconceptinthestudyofpragmatics.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer,suchasculturalbackground,situation(time,place,manner,etc.),therelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthehearer,etc.Pragmaticsvs.semanticsSemantics----isthestudyoftheliteralmeaningofasentence(withouttakingcontextintoconsideration).Pragmatics----thestudyoftheintendedmeaningofaspeaker(takingcontextintoconsideration),.“TodayisSunday”,semantically,itmeansthattodayisthefirstdayoftheweek;pragmatyaiUycanmeanalotbysayingthis,alldependingonthecontextandtheintentionofthespeaker,say,makingasuggestionorgivinganinvitation…Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning----Sentencemeaning:Abstractandcontext-independentmeaning;literalmeaningofasentence;havingadyadicrelationasinWhatdoesXmean----utterancemeaning:concreteandcontext-dependentmeaning;intendedmeaningofaspeaker;havingatriadicrelationasin:WhatdidyoumeanbyXForexample,“Thebagisheavycanmeanabagbeingheavy(sentencemeaning);anindirect,politerequest,askingthehearertohelphimcarrythebag;thespeakerisdecliningsomeonesrequestforhelp.Thedogisbarking.Ifwetakeitasagrammaticalunitandconsideritasaself-containedunitinisolation,thenwetreatitasasentence.Ifwetakeitassomethingaspeakeruttersinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose,thenwearetreatingitasanutterance.Note:Themeaningofanutteranceisbasedonthesentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext;utterancemeaningisricherthansentencemeaning;itisidenticalwiththepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersthesentence.SpeechactsisatermderivedfromtheworkofthephilosopherJ.Austin(1962)andnowusedtorefertoatheorywhichanalyzestheroleofutterancesinrelationtothebehaviorofthespeakerandthehearerininterpersonalcommunication.Itaimstoanswerthequestion“WhatdowedowhenusinglanguageInlinguisticcommunication,peopledonotmerelyexchangeinformation.Theyactuallydosomethingthroughtalkingorwritinginvariouscircumstances.Actionsperformedviaspeakingarecalledspeechacts.TwotypesofutterancesConstatives敘述句)——statementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiable;Performatives峋為何)——sentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.Note:Sometimestheyareeasytogetconfused,.“Itisrainingoutsidecanbeaconstative,andalsoaperformative,forbyutteringsuchasentence,wemaynotonlystateafact,butinvolveintheactofinformingsomeoneabouttherain.SomeExamplesofPerformatives“Ido”“InamethisshipElizabeth.”“Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.”“Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.”“Ideclarethemeetingopen.”Austin'snewmodelofspeechacts----AccordingtoAustin'newmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryactandperlocutionaryact.Thelocutionaryact----anactofsayingsomething,utteringwords,phrases,clauses,.anactofmakingameaningfulutterance(literalmeaningofanutterance);Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.Theillocutionaryact----anactperformedinsayingsomething:insayingX,IwasdoingY(theintentionofthespeakerwhilespeaking).Theperlocutionaryact----anactperformedasaresultofsayingsomething:bysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ.Itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.Forexample,“Itiscoldhere.”Itslocutionaryactisthesayingofitwithitsliteralmeaningtheweatherisclodhere;Its川ocutionaryactcanbearequestofthehearertoshutthewindow;Itsperlocutionaryactcanbethehearer'sshuttingthewindoworhisrefusaltocomplywiththerequest.---Analyzeonemoreexample:"Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.”Note:Ofthethreeacts,whatspeechacttheoryismostconcernedwithisthe川ocutionaryact.Itattemptstoaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmorethanwhattheysay.Analyzethe川ocutionaryactsofthefollowingconversationbetweenacouple:---(thetelephonerings)---H:That'thephone.(1)---W:I'minthebathroom.(2)---H:Okay.(3)Thisseeminglyincoherentconversationgoesonsuccessfullybecausethespeakersunderstandeachother'sillocutionaryacts:Makingarequestofhiswifetogoandanswerthephone.Arefusaltocomplywiththerequest;issuingarequestofherhusbandtoanswerthephoneinstead.Acceptingthewife'srefusalandacceptingherrequest,meaaiinrgght,I'llanswerit.”Linguistsaremoreconcernedaboutorinterestedinillocutionaryact.TheclassificationofillocutionaryactmadebyAmericanphilosopher-linguistJohnSearle.Searle'sclassificationofspeechacts(1969)Assertives/representatives(陳述)Directives(指令)Commissives母諾)Expressivesffe達)Declarations(宣布)Assertives/representatives---Statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue,.Ithinkthefilmismoving.I'mcertainIhaveneverseenthemanbefore.Isolemnlyswearthathehadgotit.…Directives---Tryingtogetthehearertodosomething,.Iorderyoutoleaverightnow.Openthewindow,please.Yourmoneyoryourlife!…Commissives---Committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction,.Ipromisetocome.Iwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.…Expressives----Expressingthespeaker'spsychologicalstateaboutsomething,.I'msorryforbeinglate.Iapologizeforthesufferingsthatthewarhascausedtoyourpeople.Declarations---Bringingaboutanimmediatechangeintheexistingstateoraffairs,.Inowappointyouchairmanofthecommittee.Youarefired.Inowdeclarethemeetingopen.…Note:(1)Alltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposebutdifferintheirstrengthorforce,.Iguess/amsure/swearheisthemurderer.Note:(2)Inordertogetsomeoneopenthedoor,wecanchooseonefromavarietyoftheformsinbelow:Couldyouopenthedoor,please!Canyouopenthedoor!DoyoumindopeningthedoorOpenthedoor!Thedoorplease!Principleofconversation(PaulGrice)Cooperativeprinciple(CP)----AccordingtoGrice,inmakingconversation,thereisageneralprinciplewhichallparticipantsareexpectedtoobserve.Itgoesasfollows:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.FourmaximsofCPThemaximofquality---Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.---Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.Themaximofquantity---Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequiredforthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange.---Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Themaximofrelation---Berelevant(makeyourcontributionrelevant).Themaximofmanner---Avoidobscurityofexpression.---Avoidambiguity.---Bebrief.---Beorderly.Significancesitexplainshowitispossibleforthespeakertoconveymorethanisliterarysaid.CPisnearlyalwaysobserved,whilethesemaximsarenot,whichgivesriseto"Conversationallanguagebecomesindirect.ConversationalimplicatureInrealcommunication,however,speakersdonotalwaysobservethesemaximsstrictly.Thesemaximscanbeviolatedforvariousreasons.Whenanyofthemaximsisblantantlyviolated,.boththespeakerandthehearerareawareoftheviolation,ourlanguagebecomesindirect,thenconversationalimplicaturearises.ViolationofMaximofquality---A:Wouldyouliketogomoviewithmetonight---B:Thefinalexamisapproaching.I'mafraidIhavetoprepareforit.---A:wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight----B:I'mafraidI'mnotfeelingsowelltonight.---A:WhowasthatladyIsawyouwithlastnight---B:Thatwasnolady,thatwasmywife.ViolationofmaximofquantityAtapartyayoungmanintroduceshimselfbysaying"I'mRobertSampsonfromLeeds,28,unmarried…”"Wariswar.”“Girlsaregirls.”---A:WhenisSusan'sfarewellparty---B:Sometimenextmonth.Violationofmaximofrelation---A:Howdidthemathexamgotoday,Jonnie---B:Wehadabasketballmatchwithclass2andwebeatthem.---A:Thehostessisanawfulbore.---B:Therosesinthegardenarebeautiful,aren'tthey---A:Whattimeisit---B:Thepostmanhasjustarrived.Violationofmaximofmanner---A:Shallwegetsomethingforthekids---B:Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.本章重點難點：TypesofspeechactsLocutionaryspeechact-theactionofmakingthesentenceIllocutionaryspeechact-theintentionsPerlocutionaryspeechact-theeffectsOfthesedimensions,themostimportantistheillocutionaryact.Inlinguisticcommunicationpeoplerespondtoan川ocutionaryactofanutterance,becauseitisthemeaningintendedbythespeaker.Ifateachersays,“Ihaverunoutofchalk"intheprocessoflecturing,theactofsayingistheactofdemandingforchalkisillocutionary,andtheeffecttheutterancebringsabout—oneofthestudentswillgoandgetsomechalk-isperlocutionary.InEnglish,川ocutionaryactsarealsogivenspecificlabels,suchasrequest,warning,promise,invitation,compliment,complaint,apology,offer,refusal,etc.thesespecificlabelsnamevariousspeechfunctions.SupplementaryExercisesI.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:BothsemanticsandpragmaticsstudyhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunicationPragmaticstreatsthemeaningoflanguageassomethingintrinsicandinherent.Itwouldbeimpossibletogiveanadequatedescriptionofmeaningifthecontextoflanguageusewasleftunconsidered.Whatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.Themajordifferencebetweenasentenceandanutteranceisthatasentenceisnotutteredwhileanutteranceis.Themeaningofasentenceisabstract,butcontext-dependent.Themeaningofanutteranceisdecontexualized,thereforestable.UtterancesalwaystaketheformofcompletesentencesSpeechacttheorywasoriginatedwiththeBritishphilosopherJohnSearle.Speechacttheorystartedinthelate50softhe20thcentury.Austinmadethedistinctionbetweenaconstativeandaperformative.Perlocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeakertion.'sintenII.Fillineachblankbelowwithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:Pisthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Whatessentiallydistinguishessandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.Thenotionofcisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage.Ifwethinkofasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication,itbecomesanu.Themeaningofasentenceisa,anddecontexualized.Cwerestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andwerethusverifiable.Pweresentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastate,andwerenotverifiable.Alactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.Aniactistheactofexpressingthespeaker'intention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.Aciscommitthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction.Aneistoexpressfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.Therearefourmaximsunderthecooperativeprinciple:themaximofq,themaximofquality,themaximofrelationandthemaximofmanner.III.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:25.doesnotstudymeaninginisolation,butincontext.A.PragmaticsB.SemanticsC.SenserelationD.ConceptThemeaningoflanguagewasconsideredassomethingintraditionalsemantics.A.contextualB.behaviouristicC.intrinsicD.logicalWhatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningisconsidered.A.referenceB.speechactC.practicalusageD.contextAsentenceisaconcept,andthemeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiedinisolation.A.pragmaticB.grammaticalC.mentalD.conceptualIfwethinkofasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication,itbecomesa(n)A.constativeB.directiveC.utteranceD.expressiveWhichofthefollowingistrueUtterancesusuallydonottaketheformofsentences.Someutterancescannotberestoredtocompletesentences.Noutterancescantaketheformofsentences.Allutterancescanberestoredtocompletesentences.Shelate50'softhe20thecenturyintheearly1950sinthelate1960'sintheearly21stcentury.32.istheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.A.AlocutionaryactB.AnillocutionaryactC.AperlocutionaryactD.AperformativeactAccordingtoSearle,the川ocutionarypointoftherepresentativeis.togetthehearertodosomethingtocommitthespeakertosomething’sbeingthecasetocommitthespeakertosomefuturecourseofactiontoexpressthefeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstateofaffairs.Alltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurpose,heirintentionsexpressedintheirstrengthorforceintheireffectbroughtabout35.isadvancedbyPaulGriceCooperativePrinciplePolitenessPrincipleTheGeneralPrincipleofUniversalGrammarAdjacencyPrincipleWhenanyofthemaximsunderthecooperativeprincipleisflouted,mightarise.A.impolitenessB.contradictionsC.mutualunderstandingD.conversationalimplicaturesDecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:F2.FFillineachblankbelowwithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:13.Pragmatics14.semantics15.context16.utterance17.abstract19.Pmissive23.expressive24.quantityIII.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:25.A35.AIV.Definethetermsbelow:37.pragmatics38.context39.utterancemeaning40.sentencemeaning41.constative42.performativelocutionaryact44.illocutionaryact45.perlocutionaryact46..CooperativePrincipleV.Answerthefollowingquestionsascomprehensivelyaspossible.Giveexamplesforillustrationifnecessary:HowaresemanticsandpragmaticsdifferentfromeachotherHowdoesasentencedifferfromanutteranceHowdoesasentencemeaningdifferfromanutterancemeaningDiscussindetailthelocutionaryact,illocutionaryactandperlocutionaryact.Searleclassified川ocutionaryactintofivecategories.Discusseachofthemindetailwithexamples.WhatarethefourmaximsunderthecooperativeprincipleHowdoesthefloutingofthemaximsgiverisetoconversationalimplicaturesSuggestedanswerstosupplementaryexercises:Definethetermsbelow:pragmatics:Pragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Context:Generallyspeaking,itconsistsoftheknowledgethatissharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Thesharedknowledgeisoftwotypes:theknowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,andtheknowledgeabouttheworld,includingthegeneralknowledgeabouttheworldandthespecificknowledgeaboutthesituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace.utterancemeaning:themeaningofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itisrealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.sentencemeaning:Themeaningofasentenceisoftenconsideredastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofapredication.Constative:Constativeswerestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andwereverifiable;Performative:performatives,ontheotherhand,weresentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastate,andwerenotverifiable.Theirfunctionistoperformaparticularspeechact.locutionaryact:Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.illocutionaryact:An川ocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker'sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.perlocutionaryact:Aperlocutionaryactistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.CooperativePrinciple:ItisprincipleadvancedbyPaulGrice.Itisaprinciplethatguidesourconversationalbehaviours.Thecontentis:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeorthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.Answerthefollowingquestionsascomprehensivelyaspossible.Giveexamplesforillustrationifnecessary:47.HowaresemanticsandpragmaticsdifferentfromeachotherTraditionalsemanticsstudiedmeaning,butthemeaningoflanguagewasconsideredassomethingintrinsic,andinherent,.apropertyattachedtolanguageitself.Therefore,meaningsofwords,meaningsofsentenceswereallstudiedinanisolatedmanner,detachedfromthecontextinwhichtheywereused.Pragmaticsstudiesmeaningnotinisolation,butincontext.Theessentialdistinctionbetweensemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherthecontextofuseisconsideredinthestudyofmeaning.Ifitisnotconsidered,thestudyisrestrictedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.48.HowdoesasentencedifferfromanutteranceAsentenceisagrammaticalconcept.Itusuallyconsistsofasubjectandpredicate.Anutteranceistheunitofcommunication.Itisthesmallestlinguisticunitthathasacommunicativevalue.Ifweregardasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication,itbecomesanutterance.Whether”Marsentenceoranutterancedependsonhowwelookatit.Ifweregarditasagrammaticalunitoraself-containedunitinisolation,thenitisasentence.Ifwelookatitassomethingutteredinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose,thenitisanutterance.Mostutterancestaketheformofcompletesentences,butsomeutterancesarenot,andsomecannotevenberestoredtocompletesentences.HowdoesasentencemeaningdifferfromanutterancemeaningAsentencemeaningisoftenconsideredastheintrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofapredication.Itisabstractandindependentofcontext.Themeaningofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Theutterancemeaningisbasedonsentencemeaning;itisrealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.Forexample,“Thereisadogatthedoorutteritasamatter-of-factstatement,tellingthehearerthatthedogisatthedoor.Thespeakercoulduseitasawarning,askingthehearernottoapproachthedoor.Thereareotherpossibilities,too.So,theunderstandingoftheutterancemeaningof“Theresadogatthedoor"dependsonthecontextinwhichitisutteredandthepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersit.Discussindetailthelocutionaryact,illocutionaryactandperlocutionaryact.Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.An川ocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker'sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.Aperlocutionaryactistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.Forexample:Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.Thelocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhathehasutteredallthewords"you,'"have,""door,""left,""open,"etc.andexpressedwhatthewordliterallymean.Theillocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhatbymakingsuchanutterance,hehasexpressedhisintentionofaskingthehearertoclosethedoor.Theperlocutionaryactreferstotheeffectoftheutterance.Ifthehearerunderstandsthatthespeakerintendshimtoclosethedoorandclosesthedoor,thespeakerhassuccessfullybroughtaboutthechangeintherealworldhehasintendedto;thentheperlocutioharyactissuccessfullyperformed.Searleclassifiedillocutionaryactintofivecategories.Discusseachofthemindetailwithexamples.representatives:representativesareusedtostate,todescribe,toreport,etc..The川ocutionarypointoftherepresentativesistocommitthespeakertosomething'sbeingthecase,tothetruthofwhathasbeensaid.Forexample:(Iswear)Ihaveneverseenthemanbefore.(Istate)theearthisaglobe.directives:Directivesareattemptsbythespeakertogetthehearertodosomething.Inviting,suggesting,requesting,advising,warning,threatening,orderingareallspecificinstancesofthisclass.Forexample:Openthewindow!commissives:Commissivesarethose川ocutionaryactswhosepointistocommitthespeakertosomefuturecourseofaction.Whenthespeakerisspeaking,heputshimselfunderobligation.Forexample:Ipromisetocome.Iwil