語言學(xué)-Chapter-4-Syntax復(fù)習(xí)進程

ChapterFour

SyntaxTheStudyofSentence第一頁，共93頁。TeachingObjectiveCriticalThinkingPresentandSolveProblemsUnderstandMacroscopicallyStudyofsentencefromdifferentperspectivesUnderstandMicroscopicallyChomsky:Generativeapproach第二頁，共93頁。第四章句法學(xué)(fǎxué)句子是由什么構(gòu)成的？人們(rénmen)是如何產(chǎn)生和理解句子的？句子在語法系統(tǒng)中處于什么樣的地位？構(gòu)成句子的成分（如，短語、詞）是如何構(gòu)成的？不同的句子類型是如何產(chǎn)生的？以上問題是否可以通過形式分析來描述？是否可以用一些普遍的規(guī)則概括句子的結(jié)構(gòu)？形式主義對句子結(jié)構(gòu)描述：簡單的操作、雅致的描寫、嚴格、清晰的邏輯。第三頁，共93頁。Syntaxreferstothestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombined

toformsentencesinalanguageorsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.Moreversions,

第四頁，共93頁。Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationships

betweenelementsinsentencestructures.第五頁，共93頁。Whatis

syntax?Whatistherelationshipbetweensyntax,morphologyandphonology?第六頁，共93頁。ThewrittensystemoflanguageSentencesyntaxClausesyntaxPhrasesyntaxWordmorphology第七頁，共93頁。第八頁，共93頁。ExamplesI

think

that

that

that

that

that

student

wrote

on

the

blackboard

was

wrong.

Imetaman(whohadason(whosewifesoldcookies(thatshehadbakedinherkitchen(thatwasfullyequippedwithelectricalappliances(thatwerenew).))))

第九頁，共93頁。Ithink(that

that

that[that

thatstudentwroteontheblackboard]iswrong).第十頁，共93頁。Approaches

tothestudyofsentencesThetraditionalapproachThestructuralapproachThegenerativeapproachThefunctionalapproach第十一頁，共93頁。

SentenceRule-governedsentenceformation

TraditionalapproachWord

Structuralapproach

Generativeapproach

Functionalapproach第十二頁，共93頁。Thetraditionalapproachtakesasentenceas(1)(句子(jùzi)觀)asequenceofwords.(2)(研究視角)Itstudiessentenceformationbystudyingwordsintermsofcategories（范疇）andtheirinterrelationships.

Traditionalapproach

數(shù)、性、格、時、體、態(tài)一致(yīzhì)、支配第十三頁，共93頁。Sentence:traditionalapproach

simpleSentence complex復(fù)合句

non-simple compound并列句第十四頁，共93頁。

Thestructuralapproachregardlinguisticunitsasinterrelatedwitheachotherinastructure(system),notasisolatedbits.Thisapproachtogrammar,basedonSaussure’sideasoflanguage,studiestheinterrelationshipsbetweenwords.

Structuralapproach橫組合(zǔhé)、縱聚合

AsentenceHasa

linear

structure,hierarchical

structure直接(zhíjiē)成分分析法第十五頁，共93頁。Generativeapproachismainlyreferredtotransformational-generativegrammar(TG轉(zhuǎn)換生成(shēnɡchénɡ)語法)proposedbyNoamChomsky.Chomskyproposesthatthegrammarsofallhumanlanguagesshareacommonframework.

Generativeapproach深層結(jié)構(gòu)(jiégòu)表層結(jié)構(gòu)轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則第十六頁，共93頁。JanevisitedJohn’sbrother’swife’smother’sfather’scousin’sfriend’sstore.SNPVP(V+NP)第十七頁，共93頁。

Afunctionalapproachoffersanalternativetostructuralism(formalism)Languagecannotbedescribedwithoutexaminingitsfunction.

Systemic-functionalapproachstartsfromclauseandextendsitselftodiscourse.Itinvolveswhatlanguagecanshow(ideationalfunction),whatkindofrelationcanitestablish(interpersonalfunction),andinwhatway(textualfunction).

Functionalapproach第十八頁，共93頁。Functionalsentenceperspectivedenotestheanalysisofasentenceinrespecttoitscommunicativefunction.Thebasisofthesentenceisknowninformation,calledthetheme(topic,given),whilethatwhichissaidabouttheknowninformationisconsideredtobetherheme(comment,new).第十九頁，共93頁。Sentence:functionalapproach

Yes/noInterrogativeIndicativewh-DeclarativeSentence

Imperative

第二十頁，共93頁。AnalysisofgenerativeapproachChaptercontentsThegirlateanapple.4.2howtodefineeachwordinthesentence?4.5Howisthesentenceformed?4.3,4.4Howtodescribethephrasesinvolved?第二十一頁，共93頁。ArevisedoutlineforChapter4

4.2Wordcategories（word-formationrules[morphology]）4.3&4.4Phrasecategoriesphrase-formationrules(4.3)Phraseelements(4.4)4.5&4.6SentencecategoriesSentence-formationrules(4.6)第二十二頁，共93頁。4.2WordCategories（范疇(fànchóu)）Categoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.第二十三頁，共93頁。4.2.1

Word-level(Lexical)categories

Major

English

lexical

categories實義語類Noun

(N)

student,lecture,JohnVerb

(V):

like,read,goAdjective

(Adj):

tall,lovely,redPreposition(P)about,over,on第二十四頁，共93頁。Englishminorlexicalcategories功能(gōngnéng)語類Minor

English

lexical

categoriesDeterminer(Det):

the,a,this,thoseDegreewords:quite,very,more,soQualifier(Qul):often,always,seldom,almostAuxiliary

(Aux):

can,will,do,do,be,haveConjunction

(Conj):

and,or,butComplementizer(C):that,if,for,whether第二十五頁，共93頁。Thecriteriaonwhichcategoriesaredetermined(textbook,p.43-44)MeaningInflectionDistribution

Forexample,Thegirlateanapple.第二十六頁，共93頁。Summaryofcategory詞屬于不同的類別；傳統(tǒng)語法中稱為(chēnɡwéi)“詞性”(partofspeech)或“詞類”(wordclass),生成語法中多稱為(chēnɡwéi)句法類（syntacticcategory)或語法類（grammaticalcategory),簡稱語類(category)第二十七頁，共93頁。詞可劃分為十個語類：名詞、動詞、形容詞、副詞、介詞、限定詞、代詞(dàicí)、助動詞、標記詞和連詞。根據(jù)它們是否具有詞匯意義、是否屬于開放性語類，這些單詞語類又可分為兩大類：實義語類(contentcategory;contentive）和功能語類(functioncategory;functor)。實義語類在句中主要表示詞匯意義，基本都屬于開放性語類；功能語類主要表示語法功能，都屬于封閉類語類。第二十八頁，共93頁。4.3Phrasecategories

4.2.2Phrasestructure4.3PhrasestructureruleXPruleCoordinationrule4.4PhraseelementsSpecifiersComplementsModifiers第二十九頁，共93頁。PHRASEisasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalofclauses.第三十頁，共93頁。ThephrasecategoriesThemajortypesofphrasesNPVPAPPP第三十一頁，共93頁。PhrasestructurerulePleasegroupthefollowingphrasesintocategories:thosepeoplefinishassignmentsthefishontheplatealwaysplaygamesontheshelfveryclosetoquitenearthestation(textbook,p.45)第三十二頁，共93頁。PhrasestructureruleNP(Det)+N+(PP)…e.g.thosepeople,thefishontheplate,prettygirls.VP(Qual)+V+(NP)…e.g.alwaysplaygames,finishassignments.AP(Deg)+A+(PP)…veryhandsome,verypessimistic,familiarwith,veryclosetoPP(Deg)+P+(NP)…ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestation.(textbook,p.45)第三十三頁，共93頁。Istherearuletogeneralizeallthephrasestructures?第三十四頁，共93頁。Tobemoreabstract,XPruleamoreabstractbutsimplerformulas:XP(specifier)X(complement)第三十五頁，共93頁。Anythingwronginthefollowingsentences?Whichphraseruledoeseachofthefollowingsentencesinclude?

1.Helenputonherclothes,wearingherhatandwentout.2.Mymomboughtmeareddressandanewbagandanewphoneaspresent.3.Theboyismovingwithcarethehugestone.4.Iverymuchlikeyou.第三十六頁，共93頁。CoordinationruleCoordinationstructures-----thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,etc.E.g.,Thereare…,…and…Youmayhave…,…or…HowwillXPindicatestructuressuchas:Apples,orangesandbananas

第三十七頁，共93頁。Coordinationrule第三十八頁，共93頁。4.4phraseelements:revisedXPrule

HowwillXPrulesdescribemorecomplexphrasestructuressuchas:Mymomboughtmeanew…Therefore,morerevisionsoftherulebelow:第三十九頁，共93頁。ExpandedversionsofXPrule4.4.2(p.48)Howtoillustratephraseswithmorethanonecomplement?(textbook,p.47-49)Sendme

anemailPutit

onthewallComplement:TheXPrulerevisedXP(specifier)X(complement*)Complements,howevermanythereare,occurtotherightoftheheadinEnglish.第四十頁，共93頁。Howtoillustrateasentence-likecomplement?第四十一頁，共93頁。Complementizer+complementclause4.4.2Howtoillustrateasentence-likecomplement?E.g.,Iwasafraid

thatnobodywouldbelieveme.

Matrixclause[CP]CP=Complementizer+complementclause

Complementizercomplementclause第四十二頁，共93頁。4.4.3ModifiersA

verycharming

lady

atthecarexhibition

(Specifier)(modifier)head(complement)第四十三頁，共93頁。WhatisthepositionofmodifiersintheXPrulestructures?TheexpandedXPrule:XP(specifier)(Mod)X(complement*)(Mod)

Amodifiercanoccureitherbeforeorafterthehead.Wherethereisacomplement,amodifierthatoccursaftertheheadwilloccurtotherightofthecomplementaswell.E.g.,a

carefulgirl,readcarefully,read

abookcarefullyopenthecan

withcare第四十四頁，共93頁。Now,SrulesTherulesgoverningtheformationofsentencesTHESRULESNPVP第四十五頁，共93頁。4.5&4.6ThestructureofSentencesHowaredifferentsentencepatternsproduced?Whatisthedifferenceofthefollowingthreesentences?Henrywashappytohearit.Maryiseasytoteach.Theclothesareeasytowash.剩女產(chǎn)生(chǎnshēng)的原因：一是誰都看不上，二是誰都看不上在屋頂上發(fā)現(xiàn)了小王第四十六頁，共93頁。Atreediagramusedtolabelthephrasestructure樹形圖最為直觀，不僅(bùjǐn)顯示出句子的線性結(jié)構(gòu)(linearrelationship)，而且清楚地表明其階層結(jié)構(gòu)（hierarchicalstructure）上面(shàngmiɑn)講的這些規(guī)則都是通過線性的方式實現(xiàn)的。下面將介紹生成語法中最常用的直接成分分析法(ICanalysis)，該方法對短語或句子結(jié)構(gòu)的分析表現(xiàn)為樹形圖（treediagram）第四十七頁，共93頁。TheanalysisofsentencescanbecarriedoutinwaysofICAnalysis(直接成分分析法)通常通過bracketing(方括號分析法)和treediagrams(樹形圖）實現(xiàn)。ICAnalysisreferstodivisionofasentenceupintoimmediateconstituentsbyusingbinarycuttinguntilobtainingitsultimateconstituents.（把句子按其組成部分/成分用兩進制切分法/二分法一直劃到最小的語法單位(dānwèi)－又稱最終成分。）

第四十八頁，共93頁。Immediateconstituents（直接成分(chéngfèn)）:thetwopartsthatareyieldedafterasentenceiscutintoitsconstituentelements.Ultimateconstituent（最終成分(chéngfèn)）:thesmallestgrammaticalunitobtainedthroughthedivision,orsegmentationortheformsattheword-level.第四十九頁，共93頁。這樣的圖形像一棵倒立的樹，故稱為(chēnɡwéi)樹形圖(treediagram)，文獻中常簡稱為(chēnɡwéi)樹（tree)，也叫短語標記(phrasemarker)。下面介紹關(guān)于樹形圖的一些基本概念.樹形圖上語類標記所在的點稱為(chēnɡwéi)節(jié)點（node)，連接節(jié)點的直線叫樹枝（branch)。一個節(jié)點向下分成兩條或更多條直線叫分杈該節(jié)點叫分杈節(jié)點（branchingnode)；只向下延伸出一條直線的節(jié)點叫“非分杈節(jié)點”，上例中NP,VP,PP是分杈節(jié)點,V,P,DET,N是非分杈節(jié)點。第五十頁，共93頁。樹形圖上節(jié)點間的關(guān)系常被形象地喻為親緣關(guān)系。分杈節(jié)點稱為母親(mǔqīn)節(jié)點(mothernode)簡稱母節(jié)；分杈產(chǎn)生的節(jié)點是母節(jié)的女兒節(jié)(daughternode)兩個女兒節(jié)互為姐妹節(jié)（sisternodes)，在上例中，VP向下分杈長出V和NP兩個節(jié)點，VP是母節(jié)，V和NP是VP的兩個女兒節(jié)，兩者又互為姐妹節(jié)。反過來，PP又是P和NP的母親(mǔqīn)節(jié)，P和NP互為姐妹節(jié)，是PP的兩個女兒。第五十一頁，共93頁。

moreexamplesofICanalysis

Thegirlatetheapple(S).the+girl(NP)ate+the+apple(VP)

第五十二頁，共93頁。ImmediateConstituentAnalysis

(ICAnalysis)

(1)bracketing

(((The)(girl))

((ate)

((the)(apple))))第五十三頁，共93頁。ImmediateConstituentAnalysis(ICAnalysis)(2)Thegirlatetheapple第五十四頁，共93頁。

(3)LabeledTreediagram

SNPVPDetNVNPDetNThegirlatetheapple第五十五頁，共93頁。

4.6Transformationrules

IntroductionofTGgrammarDeepstructureandsurfacestructureSometransformationrules4.6.1-4.6.5第五十六頁，共93頁。轉(zhuǎn)換生成(shēnɡchénɡ)語法Chomsky，1957年提出；1965年，Chomsky將其理論發(fā)展為標準理論（standardtheory,簡稱ST）屬形式語言學(xué)范疇，依靠演繹、形式、符號、公式等與內(nèi)容相對的手段(shǒuduàn)來分析語言。“轉(zhuǎn)換生成”是什么意思？語法可以生成從未用過的正確語句；語法描寫涉及兩種表達式或結(jié)構(gòu)描寫之間的運算和轉(zhuǎn)換。第五十七頁，共93頁。

Chomsky,whohastaughtattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologysince1955,developedatheoryoftransformationalgrammarthatrevolutionizedthescientificstudyoflanguage.Hefirstsetouthisabstractanalysisoflanguageinhisdoctoraldissertation(1955)andSyntacticStructures(1957).Insteadofstartingwithminimalsounds,asthestructurallinguistshaddone,Chomskybeganwiththerudimentaryorprimitivesentence;fromthisbasehedevelopedhisargumentthatinnumerablesyntacticcombinationscanbegeneratedbymeansofacomplexseriesofrules.

NoamChomskyNoamChomskywasbornonDecember7,1928inPhiladelphia,Pennsylvania.HisundergraduateandgraduateyearswerespentattheUniversityofPennsylvaniawherehereceivedhisPhDinlinguisticsin1955.第五十八頁，共93頁。

轉(zhuǎn)化(zhuǎnhuà)生成語法

轉(zhuǎn)換生成語法:它產(chǎn)生于20世紀50年代，由形式語法學(xué)家喬姆斯基提出。他認為僅僅描寫語法形式是不夠的，而要探索隱藏在語法行為背后的人類普遍的“語法能力”，這種語言能力通過一套“深層結(jié)構(gòu)”向“表層結(jié)構(gòu)”的轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則，從而把意義和形式結(jié)合起來，把靜態(tài)描寫提高到動態(tài)描寫。轉(zhuǎn)換生成語法認為，語言是受規(guī)則支配的體系，人具有天生的語言習(xí)得機制和語言能力。人類使用語言不是靠機械模仿和記憶，而是不斷理解、掌握(zhǎngwò)語言規(guī)則、舉一反三地創(chuàng)造性地運用語言的過程。第五十九頁，共93頁。句子(jùzi)的產(chǎn)生語法→轉(zhuǎn)換部分→表層結(jié)構(gòu)→語音部分→句子的語音表現(xiàn)基礎(chǔ)部分→深層結(jié)構(gòu)→語義部分→句子的語義表現(xiàn)上圖是一個(yīɡè)轉(zhuǎn)換-生成語法的理論框圖。語法主要包括基礎(chǔ)和轉(zhuǎn)換兩個部分，基礎(chǔ)部分生成深層結(jié)構(gòu)，深層結(jié)構(gòu)通過轉(zhuǎn)換得到表層結(jié)構(gòu)，語義部分屬于深層結(jié)構(gòu)，它為深層結(jié)構(gòu)作出語義解釋。語音部分屬于表層結(jié)構(gòu)并為表層結(jié)構(gòu)作出語音解釋。

第六十頁，共93頁。ThegoalofTGgrammaristofindoutasystemofrulestoaccountforthelinguisticcompetence

ofnativespeakersofalanguagetoformgrammaticalsentences.toprovidetherulesthatcanbeusedtogenerate

grammaticalsentences;toshowhowbasicsentencescanbe

transformedinto

either

synonymousphrasesormorecomplexsentences.

第六十一頁，共93頁。DeepStructureandSurfaceStructureAccordingtoTG,humanbeingspossesstwogrammars:–aphrasegrammarwhichconsistsoftherulesgoverningidealizedsentenceformation;--atransformationalgrammar,whichenablesustomanipulatesentencestoproducethefullrangeofsentencetypes.Asaconsequence,everysentencehasasurfacestructureandadeepstructure.第六十二頁，共93頁。Deepstructure

Theabstractrepresentationofthesyntacticpropertiesofaconstruction.

--revealstheunderlyingstructureofalinguisticutteranceandspecifiesthegrammaticalrelationsandfunctionsofthesyntacticelements.Ablueprintfortheconstructionofwell-formedsentences.

第六十三頁，共93頁。SurfaceStructureTheactuallyproducedstructurethestructuralorganizationofaconstructionpeopleactuallyproduceandreceivethedirectlyobservableactualformofsentencesastheyareusedincommunication

Asentencestructureresultingfromtheapplicationoftransformationalrules.Lookatthefollowingillustration:

第六十四頁，共93頁。

Howisasentenceproduced?

Surface

Structure(Transformationrules)

DeepStructure

第六十五頁，共93頁。Therepresentationsofthesetwolevelsdon’thavetobedifferent.Whentransformationsarenotnecessary,therepresentationsofthetwolevelslookthesame.第六十六頁，共93頁。4.3.2SentenceTransformationWecangeneratealargenumberofsentenceswithonlyasmallnumberofrules,i.e.,“phrasestructure”rules.Tree-diagramformatcandescribethetransformationprocess.--astaticrepresentationofthestructureofthesentenceatthebottomofthediagram.--a“dynamic”format,inthesensethatitrepresentsawayof“generating”notonlythatonesentence,butaverylargenumberofsentenceswithsimilarstructures第六十七頁，共93頁。Howdoestransformationtakeplace?Twoprocesses：Everytransformationisbasedonthe

deletion

and

insertion

ofconstituents.

Substitution(thedeletionandinsertionofdifferentelementsinthesameplace)andpermutation(thedeletionofanelementfromoneplaceanditsinsertioninanother)areoperationsderivedfromdeletionandinsertionofconstituents.第六十八頁，共93頁。Howdothefollowingtransformationstakeplace?Howarethefollowingstructures/sentencesproduced?Willthetrainarrive?4.6.1auxiliarymovementDobirdsfly?4.6.2doinsertionWhatwillyoutalkabout?Whatlanguagescanyouspeak?4.6.4whmovementAgeneralSrule:Movealpha“α”第六十九頁，共93頁。Anexampleofactive-passivetransformationThepassivetransformationdealswiththerelationbetweenpairslike:

(a)Theboysawcats.

(b)Catswereseenbytheboy.第七十頁，共93頁。

4.6.1Aux-movement（助動詞移動(yídòng)）

Themovementofanauxiliaryverb

tothesentence-initial

position,suchasbe,have,do,will,can,andshould.eg.Johnwillbuyapresent.WillJohnbuyapresent?The

InversionRule第七十一頁，共93頁。第七十二頁，共93頁。4.6.2DoinsertionInsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflpositioneg.Birdsfly.Birdsdofly.Dobirdsfly?

第七十三頁，共93頁。第七十四頁，共93頁。

4.6.4WH-movement

WH-movementisobligatory

inEnglish,whichchangesasentencefromaffirmative

tointerrogative.eg.Johnwillbuywhat.WhatwillJohnbuy?JohnwillputbookswhereWherewillJohnputbooks?第七十五頁，共93頁。第七十六頁，共93頁。第七十七頁，共93頁。

Moveαandconstraintsontransformations

InversioncanmoveanauxiliaryfromtheInfltothenearestCposition,butnottoamoredistantCposition.Noelementmayberemovedfromacoordinatestructure.第七十八頁，共93頁。第七十九頁，共93頁。SummaryofChapter4WordcategoriesPhrasecategoriesSentence