英語語言學(xué)概論第五章筆記0

Chapter5Semantics語義學(xué)1.Whatissemantics?什么是語義學(xué)?Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.語義學(xué)可定義為對語言意義的研究。2.Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning語義研究的幾種主要理論1Thenamingtheory命名論ItwasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.命名論是最原始的語義理論,是古希臘學(xué)者柏拉圖提出的。該理論把詞看作是該詞所指事物的名稱或標(biāo)記。2Theconceptualistview意念論Theconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.意念論認(rèn)為,語言形式及其所代表的對象之間(即語言與現(xiàn)實(shí)世界之間沒有直接聯(lián)系;確切地說,在理解語義時(shí),是通過大腦中存在意念這一中介物來聯(lián)系的。3Contextualism語境論Contextualismisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.Twokindsofcontextarerecognized:thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.語境論以這樣的假設(shè)為基礎(chǔ):人們可以從顯而易見的語境中推知或歸納出語義。語境有兩種:情景語境和語言語境。語境論認(rèn)為語言的意義離不開使用語言的語境,語義不是抽象的,它存在于語境之中,它來自語境,取決于語境。4Behaviorism行為主義論Behavioristsattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe“situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.”Thistheory,somewhatclosetocontextualism,islinkedwithpsychologicalinterest.語義的行為主義論和語義的語境論有相似之處,它也把語義放到語境中去研究,但它更注重人的心理活動(dòng),認(rèn)為語言的意義存在于語言使用者在交際過程中對聽到話語的反應(yīng)。3.Senseandreference意義和所指Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.它們是詞匯意義的既相互聯(lián)系又有所不同的兩個(gè)方面。1Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompliersareinterestedin.意義關(guān)心的是語言形式的內(nèi)在意義。它是語言形式所有特征的總和,它是抽象且脫離語境的。它是詞典編寫者們所感興趣的語義方面。簡單地說,意義是詞匯內(nèi)在的,抽象的,游離于語境之外的意義。2Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandnon-linguisticworldofexperience.所指是語言形式在現(xiàn)實(shí)世界中所指稱的東西;涉及語言成分和非語言的經(jīng)驗(yàn)世界的關(guān)系。簡單地說,所指是詞匯在特定的語境中所指稱的具體事物。4.Majorsenserelations主要意義關(guān)系1Synonymy同義關(guān)系Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.同義現(xiàn)象指的是語義的相同或相近。詞義相近的詞叫同義詞。Accordingtothewaytheydiffer,synonymscanbedividedintothefollowinggroups:aDialectalsynonyms–synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects.BritishEnglishandAmericanEnglisharethetwomajorgeographicalvarietiesoftheEnglishlanguage.方言同義詞-用在不同地域方言中的同義詞。英國英語和美國英語是英語的兩大地理變體。示例:英國英語美國英語AutumnfallLiftelevatorFlatdepartmentWindscreenwindshieldTorchflashlightbStylisticsynonyms–synonymsdifferinginstyle.Wordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality.Inotherwords,somewordstendtobemoreformal,otherscasual,andstillothersneutralinstyle.文體同義詞-在文體上有差異的同義詞。有同樣意義的詞可能在文體上,或者在正式程度上有所不同。也就是說,有些往往比較正式,有些比較隨意,有些在問題上則是中性的。示例:Oldman,daddy,dad,father,maleparentStart,begin,commenceKid,child,offspringcSynonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaningTherearewordsthatbearthesamemeaningbutexpressdifferentemotionsoftheuser,indicatingtheattitudeorbiasoftheusertowardwhatheistalkingabout.情感意義或評價(jià)意義有所不同的同義詞。有著相同的意義卻表達(dá)了使用者的不同情感的詞語,這些詞暗示使用者對他所談?wù)摰氖虑榈膽B(tài)度或傾向。示例:Collaborator合作者/

Accomplice同謀者,幫兇Like,love,admire,adore,worshipEconomical,frugal,thrifty,mean,miserly,stingydCollocationalsynonyms–synonymsdifferingintheircollocation.Somesynonymsdifferintheircollocation,i.e.,inthewordstheygotogetherwith.Thisisamatterofusage.搭配同義詞-同義詞在其搭配上各不相同,即能和這些不同的同義詞相配的詞各不相同。示例:Accuse…ofcharge…withrebuke…foreSemanticallydifferentsynonyms–synonymsthatdifferslightlyinwhattheymean.語義上不同的同義詞-同義詞的意義非常接近,但卻有細(xì)微差別。示例:Amaze暗示困惑和迷惑astound暗示難以置信Escape意味逃離不愉快或者危險(xiǎn)的事flee意味匆匆離開2Polysemy多義關(guān)系Thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Thisiswhatwecallpolysemy,andsuchawordiscalledapolysemicword.Thefactisthemorecommonlyusedawordis,themorelikelyithasacquiredmorethanonemeaning.同一個(gè)單詞可能有一個(gè)以上的意義,這就是我們所說的一詞多義,這樣的詞叫多義詞。一個(gè)詞越常用,它就越可能獲得一個(gè)以上的意義。示例:Table一詞最初只有一個(gè)意義,很可能指一塊石板或木板,這叫做其原始意義。后來它逐漸獲得了它現(xiàn)在所指稱的其它意義。3Homonymy同音/同形異義關(guān)系Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordhavingdifferentmeaninghavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarehomophones.Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecompletehomonyms.同形異義是指意義不同的詞有著相同的語言形式的現(xiàn)象,即不同的詞發(fā)音上或拼寫上,或者兩個(gè)方面都相同。兩個(gè)單詞在發(fā)音上相同時(shí),叫同音異義詞。兩個(gè)單詞在拼寫上相同時(shí),叫同形異義詞。兩個(gè)單詞在發(fā)音和拼寫上都相同時(shí),叫完全同形異義詞。示例:同音異義詞:rain/reign;night/knight;piece/peace同形異義詞:bowv./bown.;tearv./tearn.;leadv./leadn.完全同形異義詞:fastadj./fastv.;scalen./scalev.4Hyponymy上下義關(guān)系Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneralmoreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuper-ordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.Hyponymsofthesamesuper-ordinateareco-hyponymstoeachother.上下義關(guān)系是指一個(gè)具有一般性、包容性的詞與一個(gè)更為具體的詞之間的意義關(guān)系。意義更具有一般性的詞叫上義詞,意義更為具體的詞叫下義詞。同一個(gè)上義詞的多個(gè)下義詞叫并列下義詞。示例:上義詞:flower下義詞:rose(玫瑰花,tulip(郁金香,carnation(康乃馨,lily(百合花,morningglory(牽牛花上義詞:animal下義詞:dog,cat,tiger,lion,wolf,elephant,fax,bear5Antonymy反義關(guān)系Thetermantonymyisusedforoppositenessofmeaning,wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningareantonyms.反義關(guān)系用以指意義的相反。意義上相反的詞叫反義詞。aGradableantonyms分級反義詞Someantonymsaregradablebecausethereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair.Soitisamatterofdegree.一些反義詞是級別上的對立,因?yàn)橐粚@樣的反義詞中間常有其它表示程度的詞。意義相反實(shí)際上只是程度問題。示例:Old和young是反義詞,但它們代表兩個(gè)極端,中間還存在著代表年老和年輕的不同程度的其它語言形式,如middle-aged,mature,elderly.bComplementaryantonyms互補(bǔ)反義詞Apairofcomplementaryantonymsischaracterizedbythefeaturethatthedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother.互補(bǔ)反義詞具有這樣的特征,否定其中一個(gè)就意味著肯定另一個(gè)。也就是說,是一個(gè)非此即彼、非彼即此的問題。示例:Male/femalealive/deadcRelationalopposites關(guān)系反義詞Pairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitemsarecalledrelationalopposites.在意義上現(xiàn)實(shí)出逆向關(guān)系的一對詞語叫關(guān)系反義詞。示例:Wife/husbandfather/sonteacher/pupildoctor/patientbuy/sellabove/below5.Senserelationsbetweensentences句子間的意義關(guān)系1XissynonymouswithY.X和Y是同義關(guān)系示例:X:Heisabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevermarriedallhislife.如果X是真的,Y也是真的,如果X是假的,Y也是假的。2XisinconsistentwithY.X和Y是前后矛盾關(guān)系示例:X:Johnismarried.Y:Johnisabachelor.如果X是真的,Y就是假的,如果X是假的,Y就是真的。3XentailsY(YisanentailmentofXX蘊(yùn)涵Y(Y是X的蘊(yùn)涵示例:X:Johnmarriedablondheiress(女繼承人.Y:Johnmarriedablond.蘊(yùn)涵是一種包含關(guān)系。如果X蘊(yùn)涵Y,X的意義就為Y所包含。4XpresupposesY.(YisaprerequisiteofXX預(yù)示Y(Y是X的先決條件示例:X:John’sbikeneedsrepairing.Y:Johnhasabike.5Xisacontradiction.X是個(gè)矛盾句示例:X:Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtobachelor.X句子本身自相矛盾,它永遠(yuǎn)是假的。6Xissemanticallyanomalous.句子X在語義上反常示例:X:Thetablehasbadintentions.X在語義上反常,它就是荒唐的。6.Analysisofmeaning1Componentialanalysis–awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning語義成分分析法-一種詞義分析法Theapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Plusandminussignsareusedtoindicatewhetheracertainsemanticfeatureispresentorabsentinthemeaningofaword,andthesefeaturesymbolsareusuallywrittenincapitalizedletters.一個(gè)單詞的意義可以分析為被稱作語義特征的意義成分。用加減號來表示某一語義特征在一個(gè)詞義中是存在還是省缺,這些特征符號通常用大寫字母來表示。Oneadvantageofcomponentialanalysisisthatbyspecifyingthesemanticfeaturesofcertainwords,itwillbepossibletoshowhowthesewordsarerelatedinmeaning.成分分析的一個(gè)好處是,通過列出某些單詞的語義特征,就可能顯示這些單詞在意義上有什么聯(lián)系。示例:Man和woman這兩個(gè)單詞有HUMAN,

ADULT,ANIMATE這些共同的特征,但在MALE這一特征上不同。Man和boy這兩個(gè)單詞有HUMAN,

ANIMATE,MALE這些共同的特征,但在ADULT這一特征上不同。2Predicationanalysis–awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning述謂結(jié)構(gòu)分析-一種句義分析法Linguistshaveproposeddifferentwaystoanalyzethemeaningofsentences.Theymightdifferintheirframeworkofanalysis,buttheysharetheaimtoabstractthemeaningofsentences.WhatwearegoingtointroducebrieflyisthepredicationanalysisproposedbythelinguistGLeech.語言學(xué)家們提出了不同的分析句子意義的方法。他們的分析基準(zhǔn)體系可能有所不同,但他們的目標(biāo)都是使句子意義抽象化。我們現(xiàn)在要介紹的是英國語言學(xué)家G里奇提出的述謂結(jié)構(gòu)分析法。Ingrammaticalanalysis,thesentenceistakentobethebasicunit,anditisanalyzedintosuchgrammaticalcomponentsassubject,predicate,andattribute.對句子進(jìn)行語法分析時(shí)，句子被視為基本單位，它被分析謂諸如主謂語和定語這樣的語法成分。Insemanticanalysisofasentence,thebasicunitiscalledpredication,whichistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Thisappliestoallformsofsentence,includingstatements,imperativeandinterrogativeforms.對句子進(jìn)行意義分析時(shí)，基本單位稱為述謂，這是對句子意義的抽象化