1語言的普遍特征

1.語言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness雙層結(jié)構(gòu)duality既由聲音和意義結(jié)構(gòu)多產(chǎn)性productivity移位性displacement:我們能用語言可以表達許多不在場的東西文化傳播性culturaltransmission2。語言的功能：傳達信息功能informative人濟功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娛樂功能recreatinal元語言功能metalingual.語言學(xué)linguistics：包括六個分支語音學(xué)Phonetics音位學(xué)phonology形態(tài)學(xué)Morphology句法學(xué)syntax語義學(xué)semantics語用學(xué)pragmatics.現(xiàn)代結(jié)構(gòu)主義語言學(xué)創(chuàng)始人：Ferdinanddesaussure提出語言學(xué)中最重要的概念對之一：語言與言語languageandparole，語言之語言系統(tǒng)的整體，言語則只待某個個體在實際語言使用環(huán)境中說出的具體話語.語法創(chuàng)始人：NoamChomsky提出概念語言能力與語言運用competenceandperformanceWhichofthefollowingstatementscanbeusedtodescribedisplacement.oneoftheuniquepropertiesoflanguage:wecaneasilyteachourchildrentolearnacertainlanguagewecanuseboth'shu'and'tree'todescribethesamething.wecanuselanguagetorefertosomethingnotpresentwecanproducesentencesthathaveneverbeenheardbefore..Whatisthemostimportantfunctionoflanguage?interpersonalphaticinformatived.metallingual.Thefunctionofthesentence"Aniceday,isn'tit?"is__ainformativephaticdirectiveperformative4.Thedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformanceisproposedby__asaussurehallidaychomskythepragueschool5.Whoputforwardthedistinctionbetweenlanguageandparole?saussurechomskyhallidaydanomymous第二節(jié)語音學(xué).發(fā)音器官由聲帶thevocalcords和三個回聲腔組成.輔音consonant：thereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltract..輔音的發(fā)音方式爆破音completeobstruction鼻音nasals破裂音plosives部分阻塞輔音partialobstruction擦音fricatives破擦音affricates等.輔音清濁特征voicing輔音的送氣特征aspiration.元音vowel分類標(biāo)準舌翹位置，舌高和嘴唇的形狀6雙元音diphthongs,有元音過渡vowelglidesArticulatoryphoneticsmainlystudies__.thephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeechtheperceptionofsoundsthecombinationofsoundstheproductionofsoundsThedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesin__theplaceofarticulationb.theobstructionfairstreamthepositionofthetonguetheshapeofthelipsWhatisthecommonfactorofthethreesounds:p,ktvoicelessspreadc.voicedd.nasalWhatphoneticfeaturedistinguishthepinpleaseandthepinspeak?voicingaspirationc.roundnessd.nasalityWhichofthefollowingisnotadistinctivefeatureinEnglish?a.voicingb.nasalapproximationaspiration.Thephonologicalfeaturesoftheconsonantkare__voicedstopvoicelessstopvoicedfricativevoicelessfricative.pisdivverentfromkin__themannerofarticulationtheshapeofthelipsthevibrationofthevocalcordsd.thepalceofarticualtion.Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsin__a.aspirationb.nasalityobstructionvoicing第三節(jié)音位學(xué)phonology.音位學(xué)與語音學(xué)的區(qū)別：語音學(xué)著重于語音的自然屬性，主要關(guān)注所有語言中人可能發(fā)出的所有聲音；音位學(xué)則強調(diào)語音的社會功能，其對象是某一種語言中可以用來組合成詞句的那些語音。.音位phoneme：最小語音單位.音位變體allophones:讀音差別.對比性分布：如果兩個音段出現(xiàn)在同一個語音環(huán)境中，而且產(chǎn)生了兩個不同的單詞，.互補性分布；如果兩個基本相似的音段絕不會出現(xiàn)在相同的語音環(huán)境中，那么它們之間就是互補性分布的關(guān)系，如送氣p絕不會出現(xiàn)在s之后，不送氣的p絕不會出現(xiàn)在詞首.音節(jié)syllable，分為節(jié)首onset，節(jié)峰peak，節(jié)尾coda.輔音群:一般作為音節(jié)節(jié)首的輔音群不能超過三個福音，節(jié)尾不能超過4個.最小語音對minimalpairsI.IntroductionWhatisLanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.WhatisLinguistics（語言學(xué)）Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.meBasicDistinctions（區(qū)分）inLinguisticsSpeechandWritingOnegeneralprinciple（原則）oflinguisticanalysisistheprimacyofspeechoverwriting.Writinggiveslanguagenewscope（范疇）andusesthatspeechdoesnothave.Descriptive（描述性）orPrescriptive（說明性）Alinguisticstudyisdescriptiveifitdescribesandanalysesfactsobserved;itisprescriptiveifittriestolaydownrulesfor"correct"behavior.Synchronic（共時）andDiachronic（歷時）StudiesThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudyandThedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Langue（語言）andParole（言語）ThisisadistinctionmadebytheSwisslinguistF.DeSaussure（索緒爾）earlylastcentury.languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandparolereferstotheactualized（實際的）language,orrealizationoflangue.Competence（能力）andPerformance（行為）Competenceistheideallanguageuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances（發(fā)聲）.4.TheScopeofLinguisticsGenerallinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageasawhole.Phonetics（語音學(xué)）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.Phonology（音韻學(xué)）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthesoundpatternsoflanguages.Morphology（詞法）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestheformofwords.Syntax（句法）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestherulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentences.Semantics（語義學(xué)）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthemeaningoflanguage.Appliedlinguistics（應(yīng)用語言學(xué)）isthestudyoftheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthemind.HistoricalLinguistics（歷史語言學(xué)）isthestudyoflanguagechanges.Anthropologicallinguistics（人文語言學(xué)）usesthetheoriesandmethodsofanthropologytostudylanguagevariationandlanguageuseinrelationtotheculturalpatternsandbeliefsofman.Neurolinguistics（神經(jīng)語言學(xué)）studiestheneurologicalbasisoflanguagedevelopmentanduseinhumanbeings.Mathematicallinguistics（數(shù)學(xué)語言學(xué)）studiesthemathematicalfeaturesoflanguage,oftenemployingmodelsandconceptsofmathematics.Computationallinguistics（計算語言學(xué)）isanapproachtolinguisticsinwhichmathematicaltechniquesandconceptsareapplied,oftenwiththeaidofacomputer.II.Phonetics（語音學(xué)）scopeofphoneticsSpeechsoundsmaybestudiedfromdifferentangles,thuswehaveatleastthreebranchesofphonetics:Articulatoryphonetics（發(fā)音語音學(xué)）wemayexaminethewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolvedandhowtheycoordinate調(diào)）intheprocess.Auditoryphonetics（聽覺語音學(xué)）wemaylookintotheimpressionaspeakermakesonthehearerasmediated（調(diào)節(jié)）bytheear,theauditorynerve（神經(jīng)）andthebrain.Acousticphonetics（聲學(xué)語音學(xué)）westudythephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmitted（傳送）betweenmouthandear.ThevocalorgansThevocalorgansmaybeviewedasconsistingofthreeparts,theinitiatoroftheair-stream,（氣流發(fā)生器官）theproducerofvoice（聲音發(fā)生器官）andtheresonatingcavities.（聲音共振器官）Consonants（輔音）Placesofarticulation（發(fā)音部位）：bilabial,（雙唇）Labiodentals,（唇齒）dental,（齒）alveolar,（齒齦）retroflex,（卷舌）palate-alveolar,（上齒齦）palatal,（上顎）velar,（軟腭）uvular,（小舌）glottal（聲門）Mannersofarticulation:plosive,（暴破）nasal,（鼻音）trill,（顫音）lateral,（邊音）fricative,（摩擦）approximant,（近似音）affricate（破擦）Vowels（元音）Theclassificationofvowels:theheightoftongueraising（high,mid,low）,thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue（front,central,back）,andthedegreeofliprounding（rounded,unrounded）Phonology（音韻學(xué)）phonemes（音素）：adistinctive（有區(qū)別的）soundinalanguage.Allophones（音位變體）：Thenondistinctivesoundsaremembersofthesamephoneme.Minimalpairs（最小對立體）： wordformswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.Freevariation（自由變異）：Iftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironment（環(huán)境），theydoesnotproduceadifferentwordform,butmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword.Complementarydistribution（補充分類）：Notallthespeechsoundsoccurinthesameenvironment.Whentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment.6.Suprasegmentalphonology（超音段音位）：thestudyofphonologicalproperties（性質(zhì)）ofunitslagerthanthesegment-phoneme.Theyaresyllable（音節(jié)），stress,（重音）wordstress,sentencestress.pitch（音調(diào)）andintonation（語調(diào)）.Morphology（詞法）inflection（構(gòu)形法）：thegrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes.（屈折詞綴）Word-formation（構(gòu)詞）：theprocesses（過程）ofwordvariationssignalinglexicalrelationships.（表明詞法關(guān)系）Theyarecompound（合成）andderivation（派生）.Morpheme（詞素）： thesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent.Allomorph（同質(zhì)異象變體）：somemorphemeshaveconsiderablevariation,forinstance,alternateshapesorphoneticforms.Typesofmorphemes:Theyareroots,（詞根）affix（詞綴）andstem（詞干）.Lexicon語言詞匯）：initsmostgeneralsense,issynonymouswithvocabulary.Closed-classwords（封閉性）andopen-classwords（開放性）：theformerwhosemembershipisfixedorlimitedandthelatterwhosemembershipisinprinciple（實際上）indefiniteorunlimited.Wordclass（詞性）：Itdisplaysawiderrangeofmorepreciselydefinedclasses.Lexeme（詞位）：thesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersmallerunits.Idiom（習(xí)語，成語）：Mostphrasallexemesareidioms.Itisespeciallytrueforasequenceofwords（詞序）whichissemantically（語義上）andoftensyntactically（句法上）restricted.（限制）Collocation（搭配）：thehabitual（習(xí)慣的）co-occurrences（同時出現(xiàn)）ofindividuallexicalitems.Syntax（句法）Positionalrelationorwordorder（詞序）：thesequential（順序）arrangementofwordsinalanguage.Constructionorconstituent（句子結(jié)構(gòu)）：theoverallprocessofinternal（內(nèi)部）organizationofagrammaticalunit.Syntacticfunction（句法功能）：therelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused.Thenamesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects,objects,predicates,modifiers,（修飾語）complements（補語），etc.Category（范疇）：Itreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Thecategoriesofthenounincludenumber,gender,caseandcountability.Phrase:asingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalofclause.Clause:agroupofwordswithitsownsubjectandpredicate,ifitisincludedinalargersentence.Sentence:Itistheminimumpartoflanguagethatexpressesacompletethought.VI.SemanticsConceptualismormentalism（概念主義）:FollowingF.DeSaussure（索學(xué)爾）'s"sign"theory,thelinguisticsignissaidtoconsistofasignifier（所指）andsignified（被指），i.e.,asoundimageandaconcept,likedbyapsychological（心理的）"associative"bond.（相關(guān)聯(lián)系）Mechanism（機械主義）：Somelinguists,Bloomfield,（布魯費爾德）forexample,turnedtosciencetocounter（反）-acttheprecioustheoriesandthisleadstowhatcallthemechanisticapproach（方法）.Thenatureofthistheoryhasnothingtodowiththescientificstudyofmentalphenomena（.智力現(xiàn)象）Contextualism（語境主義）：Itisbasedonthepresumption（假定）thatonecanderivemeaningfromorreduceittoobservablecontext.Behaviorism（行為主義）:Behavioristsattempttodefine（定義）themeaningofalanguageformas"thesituation（情景）inwhichthespeakerutters（說話）itandtheresponse（反應(yīng)）itcallsforthinthehearer."functionalism（功能主義）：functionalistsasrepresented（代表）bythePragueschool（布拉格學(xué)派）linguistsandneo-Firthian（新弗斯）linguists,approachtheproblemfromanentirelyneworientation（方法）.Theyargue（爭辯）thatmeaningcouldonlybeinterpreted（解釋）fromitsuseorfunctioninsociallife.Senserelationships:Whilereferencedealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelements,words,sentences,etc.,andthenon-linguisticworldofexperience,senserelatestothecomplexsystemofrelationshipsthatholdbetweenthelinguisticelementsthemselves.Theyincludesynonymy（同義詞），antonym（反義詞），hyponymy（下層次）Polysemy（一詞多義）andHomonymy（同音異義詞）Semanticanalysis:Itincludes1）componential（成分）analysiswhichdefinesthemeaningofalexicalelementintermsofsemanticcomponents.（意義成分）2）predication（表述）analysisinwhichthemeaningofasentenceisnotmerelythesumofthemeaningsofthewordswhichcomposeit.3）relationalcomponentsinwhichthesemanticanalysisofsomewordspresentsacomplicatedpicture,becausetheyshowrelationsbetweentwoandperhapsmoreterms.VII.Languagevariation（語言變化）Lexicalchange（詞匯的變化）：changesinlexis.Invention:（新造詞）newentities.泠、、Compounding'合成詞）Newwordsaresometimesconstructedbycombiningtwooldwords.Blending:（混合詞）：Itisarelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtworootsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstrootandthefinalpartofthesecondr