戴煒棟《簡明語言學教程》配套筆記 自己整理版

------------------------------------------------------------------------戴煒棟《簡明語言學教程》配套筆記自己整理版Chapter1IntroductionWhatislinguistics?什么是語言學[A]ThedefinitionoflinguisticsLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage(對語言進行的科學研究)Processoflinguisticstudy:①Certainlinguisticfactsareobserved,generalizationareformed;②Hypothesesareformulated;③Hypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations;④Alinguistictheoryisconstructed.[B]ThescopeoflinguisticsGenerallinguistics普通語言學:thestudyoflanguageasawhole從整體研究1.Phonetics:thegeneralstudyofthecharacteristicsofspeechsounds(orthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage)(Howspeechsoundsareproducedandclassified)2.Phonology:isessentiallythedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinalanguage.(Howsoundsformsystemsandfunctiontoconveymeaning)3.Morphology:thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwords(howmorphemesarecombinedtoformwords)4.Syntax:thestudyofthoserulesthatgovernthecombinationofwordstoformpermissiblesentences(howmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentences)5.Semantics:thestudyofmeaninginabstraction6.Pragmatics:thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseSociolinguistics:thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyPsycholinguistics:thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofthemindAppliedlinguistics:theapplicationoflinguisticsprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearningAnthropologicallinguistics,neurologicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;computationallinguistics[C]Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics①Prescriptivevs.Descriptive規(guī)定性與描寫性②Synchronicvs.Diachronic共時性與歷時性（現(xiàn)代英語多研究共時性）Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintime;Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.③Speechandwriting言語與文字Spokenlanguageisprimary,notthewritten④Langueandparole語言和言語ProposedbySwisslinguistsF.deSausse(sociological)Langue:referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity（指一個話語社團所有成員共有的語言系統(tǒng)）Parole:referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse（指語言在實際運用中的實現(xiàn)）⑤Competenceandperformance語言能力與語言運用ProposedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomsky(psychological)Competence:theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.（理想的語言使用者關于語言規(guī)則方面的知識）Performance:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticscommunication.（這種知識在語言交流中的具體實現(xiàn)）Whatislanguage?什么是語言[A]ThedefinitionoflanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.(語言是一個具有任意性、用于人類交流的語音符號系統(tǒng)。)a)System:combinedtogetheraccordingtorules（根據(jù)規(guī)則組合在一起）b)Arbitrary:nointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor（語言符號和符號所代表的事物之間沒有內在的必然的聯(lián)系）c)Vocal:theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages（所有語言的首要媒介都是聲音）d)Human:languageishuman-specific（語言是人類所獨有的）[B]Designfeatures(uniqueproperties):thedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication（識別特征是指人類語言區(qū)別于任何動物交際系統(tǒng)的本質特征）①Arbitrariness（任意性）Thereisnologicalornaturalconnectionbetweenalinguisticform(eithersoundorword)anditsmeaning.Whilelanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary.（意義和語音之間沒有什么邏輯的聯(lián)系；雖然是任意性的，但并非完全任意）a)echoofthesoundsofobjectsoractivities:onomatopoeicwords（擬聲詞）b)somecompoundwords（某些復合詞）②Productivity（能產性，創(chuàng)造性）Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.(Creativityoropen-endedness)★③Duality（雙重結構性，兩重性或二元性）Languageisorganizedattwolevelsorlayerssimultaneously.Thelowerorbasiclevelisastructureofsoundswhicharemeaningless.Thehigherlevelismorphemeorword(doublearticulation)（語言是一個系統(tǒng)，包含兩組結構或者兩個層面。在較低/基本層面存在著語音結構，其自身沒有什么意義；較高層面存在著意義單位；結構的雙重性/語言的雙層性）④Displacement（跨時空性，移位性）Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker(refertopastandfuturetimeandtootherlocations)⑤Culturaltransition（文化傳遞性）Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis(everyonewasbornwiththeabilitytoacquirealanguage),thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnt.Theabove5propertiesmaybetakenasthecorefeaturesofhumanlanguage.Chapter2Phonology音位學[A]Thedefinitionofphonetics（語音學）Phonetics:thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage:itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.（是指對語言的語音媒介進行的研究，它關注語言世界中的所有語音）Articulatoryphonetics:thestudyofhowspeechsoundsaremade,orarticulated.（發(fā)音語音學）Acousticphonetics:dealswiththephysicalpropertiesofspeechassoundwavesintheair.（聽覺語音學）Auditory(orperceptual)phonetics:dealswiththeperception,viatheear,ofspeechsounds.（聲學語音學）[B]Organsofspeech（發(fā)音器官）Voiceless:清音whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairfromthelungspassesbetweenthemunimpeded.Voiced(Voicing):濁音whenthevocalcords聲帶aredrawntogether,theairfromthelungsrepeatedpushesthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatingavibrationeffect.AlltheEnglishvowels元音aretypicallyvoiced(voicing).Theimportantcavities:Thepharyngealcavity咽腔Theoralcavity口腔Thenasalcavity鼻腔其他部位：Lips唇1,teeth齒2,teethridge(alveolus)齒齦3,hardpalate硬腭4,softpalate(velum)軟腭5,uvula小舌6,tipoftongue舌尖7,bladeoftongue舌面8,backoftongue舌后9,vocalcords聲帶10[C]Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds：Broadandnarrowtranscriptions（語音的正字法表征：寬式/窄式標音）IPA(InternationalPhoneticAlphabet/Association國際語音協(xié)會/國際音標)Broadtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly（代表字母的符號）Narrowtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics（變音符）E.g.:[l]à[li:f]--àaclear[l](nodiacritic)[l]à[bild]--àadark[l](~)[l]à[help]--àadental[l]()[p]à[pit]--àanaspirated[ph](h表示送氣)[p]à[spit]--àanunaspirated[p](nodiacritic)[n]à[5bQtn]àasyllabicnasal[n](7)[D]ClassificationofEnglishconsonants（英語輔音的分類）Intermsofmannerofarticulation根據(jù)發(fā)音方法分(themannerinwhichobstructioniscreated)①Stops閉塞音:theobstructionistotalorcomplete,andthengoingabruptly[p]/[b],[t]/[d],[k]/[g]②Fricatives摩擦音:theobstructionispartial,andtheairisforcedthroughanarrowpassageinthemonth[f]/[v],[s]/[z],[∫]/[з],[θ]/[δ],[h](approximant)③Affricates塞擦音:theobstruction,completeatfirst,isreleasedslowlyasinfricatives[t∫]/[dз]④Liquids流音:theairflowisobstructedbutisallowedtoescapethroughthepassagebetweenpartorpartsofthetongueandtheroofofthemouth[l]àalateralsound;[r]àretroflex⑤Glides滑音:[w],[j](semi-vowels)Liquid+glides+[h]àapproximants⑥Nasals鼻音:thenasalpassageisopenedbyloweringthesoftpalatetoletairpassthroughit[m],[n],[η]Byplaceofarticulation根據(jù)發(fā)音部位分(theplacewhereobstructioniscreated)①bilabial雙唇音:upperandlowerlipsarebroughttogethertocreateobstructions[p]/[b],[w]à(velar)②labiodentals唇齒音:thelowerlipandtheupperteeth[f]/[v]③dental齒音:thetipofthetongueandtheupperfrontteeth[θ]/[δ]④alveolar齒齦音:thefrontpartofthetongueonthealveolarridge[t]/[d],[s]/[z],[n],[l],[r]⑤palatal腭音:tongueinthemiddleofthepalate[θ]/[δ],[t∫]/[dз],[j]⑥velars軟腭因:thebackofthetongueagainstthevelum[k],[g],[η]⑦glottal喉音:theglottalisthespacebetweenthevocalcordsinthelarynx[h][E]ClassificationofEnglishvowels（英語元音的分類）

①Thehighestpositionofthetongue:front,central,back;②Theopennessofthemouth:close,semi-close,semi-open,open;③Theroundness(shape)ofthemonth(thelips):Allthefront,centralvowelsareunroundedvowelsexcept[B]Allthebackvowels,except[A:]areroundedvowels④Thelengthofthesound:longvowels&shortvowelsLarynxà(tense)or(lax)Monophthongs,diphthongsCardinalvowels[F]Thedefinitionofphonology（音位學）Phoneticsisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonology,ontheotherhand,isinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguages;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.[G]Phone,phoneme,andallophone（音素、音位、音位變體）Phone:aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment（因素是一個語音單位或者說語音段）Phoneme:aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue,itisanabstractunit.（音位是一個音位學的單位，而且是一個有區(qū)別意義的單位，是一個抽象的單位）Allophone:thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.（在不同的語音環(huán)境下代表某個音位的音素被稱為該音位的音位變體）[H]Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,minimalpair（音位對立、互補分布、最小對立體）Phonemiccontrast:whentwophonemescanoccurinthesameenvironmentsintwowordsandtheydistinguishmeaning,they’reinphonemiccontrast.E.g.pin&binà/p/vs./b/rope&robeà/p/vs./b/（要會判斷?。〤omplementarydistribution:twoormorethantwoallophonesofthesamephonemesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistributionbecausetheycannotappearatthesametime,oroccurindifferentenvironment,besidestheydonotdistinguishmeaning.Minimalpair:whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.Whenagroupofwordscanbedifferentiated,eachonefromtheothers,bychangingonephoneme(alwaysinthesameposition),thenallofthesewordsconstituteaminimalsets.[I]Somerulesinphonology①sequentialrules序列規(guī)則Phonotacticsof3consonantsoccurringinonset:如果三個輔音都出現(xiàn)在詞首，必須遵循以下三條規(guī)則：No1:___/s/第一個音位一定是/s/___voicelessstops:/p/,/t/,/k/第二個音位一定是/p/,/t/,/k/___approximants:/r/,/l/,/w/,/j/第三個音位一定是/r/,/l/,/w/,/j/No2:Theaffricates[t∫],[dз]andthesibilants[s],[z],[θ],[δ]arenottobefollowedbyanothersibilants.②assimilationrules同化規(guī)則Co-articulationeffects:theprocessofmakingonesoundalmostatthesametimeasthenextiscalledco-articulation.Assimilation&elisioneffects元音省略Assimilation:twophonemesoccurinsequenceandsomeaspectofonephonemeistakenorcopiedbytheotherE.g.nasalizeavowelwhenitisfollowedbyanasalsound.鼻音化現(xiàn)象③deletionrule/Elision省略規(guī)則Definition:theomissionofasoundsegmentwhichwouldbepresentindeliberatepronunciationofawordinisolationE.g.deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant省略詞末鼻輔音前的[g]音[J]Suprasegmentalfeatures（超音段特征）①Stress重音Wordstress&sentencestressThestressoftheEnglishcompoundsalwaysonthefirstelement②Tone聲調Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationscandistinguishmeaningjustlikemorphemes.像音素一樣可以區(qū)別意義Tonelanguage,likeChinese,hasfourtones.漢語就是一種典型的聲調語言，有四個音調Level,rise,fall-rise,fall陰平陽平上聲去聲③Intonation語調Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.English:thefourbasictypesofintonation,orthefourtones四種語調Thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risingtone,andtherise-falltone降調聲調將聲調升降調Chapter3Morphology形態(tài)學[A]ThedefinitionofmorphologyMorphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.（指對詞的內部結構以及構詞規(guī)則的研究）Morpheme:詞素themostbasicelementofmeaning.（意義的最基本要素）(Aminimalunitofmeaningorgrammaticalfunction最小的意義單位或者語法功能)[B]Freemorphemes&boundmorphemes（自由詞素和黏著詞素）Freemorphemes:canstandbythemselvesassinglewordsàLexicalmorphemes[n.a.v]&functionalmorphemes[n.]Boundmorphemes:cannotnormallystandalone,butwhicharetypicallyattachedtoanotherformàDerivationalmorphemes派生詞素àaffix詞綴(suffix,infix,prefix)+root后綴中綴前綴+詞根àInflectionalmorphemes曲折詞素à8typesofinflectionalmorphemesinEnglishNoun+-’s,-s[possessive所有格;plural復數(shù)]Verb+-s,-ing,-ed,-en[3rdpersonpresentsingular第三人稱單數(shù);presentparticiple現(xiàn)在分詞;pasttense過去式,pastparticiple過去分詞]Adj+-er,-est[comparative比較級;superlative最高級][C]Derivationalvs.Inflectional派生（范疇/語類）和曲折（語法標志）Inflectionalmorphemesneverchangethegrammaticalcategoryofaword只表示語法標志（時態(tài)、數(shù)、格）Inflectionalmorphemesinfluencethewholecategory詞的范疇;DerivationalmorphemesareoppositeOrder:root(stem)+derivational+inflectional詞根/詞干+派生+曲折[D]MorphologicalRules形態(tài)學規(guī)則（詞的構成方式à詞素是怎樣組合成為詞）N.+lyàa.;A.+lyàadv.;guardovergeneralization[E]Morphsandallomorphs語素和語素變體Morphs:theactualformsusedtorealizemorphemesAllomorphs:asetofmorphs,allofwhichareversionsofonemorpheme,amorphememayhavealternateshapesorphoneticforms.e.g.map----maps[s]dog----dogs[z]watch----watches[iz]mouse----mice[ai]ox----oxen[n]tooth----teethsheep----sheepEachoftheunderlinedpartiscalledanallomorphofpluralmorpheme.[F]Word-formationprocess（構詞法）①Coinageàtheinventionoftotallynewterms（創(chuàng)造全新的詞）②Borrowingàthetakingoverofwordsformotherlanguages③Compoundingàajoiningoftwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform（組成復合詞）④Blendingàtakingoverthebeginningofonewordandjoiningittotheendofotherword⑤Clippingàawordofmorethanonesyllablereducedtoashorterform⑥Backformationàaprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytakingawaythesuffixofanexistingword⑦Conversionàcategorychange,functionalshift⑧Acronymsànewwordsareformedfromtheinitiallettersofasetofotherwords⑨Derivationàthenewwordsareformedbytheadditionofaffixestotheroots,stems,orwords（添加詞綴）⑩Abbreviationàashortenedformofawordorphrasewhichrepresentsthecompleteform（縮短原詞）Chapter4Syntax句法學[A]ThedefinitionofsyntaxSyntax:Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandrulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences（句法學是研究詞是如何組成句子以及如何支配句子構成規(guī)則的一個語言學分支）[C]TypesofsentencesSimplesentence簡單句:consistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.Coordinate(Compound)sentence并列（復合）句:containstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunctions,suchas“and”,“by”,“or”…Complexsentence復雜句:containstwo,ormore,clauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheotherEmbeddedclause子句?àmatrixclause主句①subordinator②functionsasagrammaticalunit③maybecomplete[B]Somecategories（范疇）Syntacticcategories:refertoawordoraphrasethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunction,suchasthesubjectorthepredicate句法范疇Lexicalcategories:(partsofspeech)詞匯范疇Majorlexicalcategories(opencategories):N.V.Adj.Adv.Minorlexicalcategories(closedcategories):Det.Aux.Prep.Pron.Conj.Int.Phrasalcategories:NP,VP,PP,AP短語范疇[C]CombinationalrulesAresmallinnumberàYieldallthepossiblesentencesRuleouttheimpossibleones①phrasestructurerules(rewriterules)（短語結構規(guī)則）SàNPVP(Asentenceconsistsof,orisrewrittenas,anounphraseandaverbphrase)NPà(det.限定詞)(Adj.)N(PP)(S)…“à”：包括/分為VPà(qual.修飾詞)V(NP)(POP)(S)…“()”：內部的成分可以省略APà(deg.程度詞)A(PP)(S)…“…”：可以選擇附加其他補語PPà(deg.)PNP…②X-bartheoryHeadàanobligatorywordthatgiversthephraseitsnameXPorX-phraseXPà(Specifier)X(complement)Formula:X”àSpecX’X-bartheory(X-barschema)X’àXcompl[D]Transformationalrules轉換規(guī)則àD-structureandS-structure深層結構和表層結構Deepstructure:thestructurethatcorrespondsmostcloselytothemeaningfulgroupingofwords.Itisabstract,whichgivesthemeaningofasentenceandwhichitselfisnotpronounceable.Surfacestructure:lineararrangementofwordsastheyarepronounced.Asurfacestructureisrelativelyconcrete,andgivestheformofasentenceasitisusedincommunication.Twolevelsofsyntacticrepresentationofasentencestructure:OnethatexistsbeforemovementtakesplaceTheotherthatoccursaftermovementtakesplaceFormallinguisticexploration:D-structure:phrasestructurerules+lexiconSentenceatthelevelofD-structureTheapplicationofsyntacticmovementrulestransformsasentencefromD-structureleveltoS-structurelevelTransformational-generativelineofanalysis[E]SyntacticRelationsSequential(syntagmatic)relations組合關系ThelinearorderingofthewordsandthephraseswithinasentenceSubstitutional(paradigmatic)relations(聚合關系)Ifthewordsorphrasesinasentencecanbereplacedbywordsandphrasesoutsidethesentenceandtheresultingsentenceisstillgrammatical,thenwesaythereplacingformsandreplacedformshaveparadigmaticrelations.[F]ImmediateConstituentAnalysis（ICAnalysis）ICAnalysisistosimplydivideasentenceintoitsconstituentelementswithoutatfirstknowingwhattheseelementsare.Theprincipleisthatwetakeasentenceandcutitintotwoandthencutthesepartsintotwoandcontinuewiththissegmentationuntilwereachthesmallestgrammaticalunit,themorphemesLabeledICanalysissyntacticcategoriescriteriainjudgingsyntacticcategories:1)morphologicalfeatures(inflectionalandderivationalaffixestheytake)(number,casegenderetc.)2)syntacticcontextsinwhichthelinguisticformscanoccurCategorythe determiner(Det.)boynoun(n.)oftenqualifierplays verb(v.)aDet.verydegreeword(Deg)smallmodifierballn.must,should…auxiliary(Aux.)and,but,or…conjunction(Con.)[G]ThehierarchicalstructureofsentenceAsentencecanbeanalyzedintoconstituents.Conversely,constituentsatdifferentlevelscancombinetoformincreasinglylargerunits.SentencesareanalyzedintoclausesareanalyzedintophrasesareanalyzedintowordsareanalyzedintomorphemessentencessentencesareusedtobuildclausesareusedtobuildphrasesareusedtobuildwordsareusedtobuildmorphemesSotraditionally,sentencesareassumedtobemadeofindividualwordsinalineardirectionChapter5Semantics語義學[A]ThedefinitionofsemanticsSemantics:thestudyofmeaningfromthelinguisticpointofview（對意義的研究）[B]Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning關于意義研究的一些觀點①thenamingtheory命名論②theconceptualistview概念論Thought/referenceàconcept思想/指稱

Symbol/Form(words)符號/形式Referentà(realobject)所指③contextualism:JohnFirth語境論④behaviorismàBloomfield行為主義論basedoncontextualistviewS:stimulusr:responseJillJackS---------r………s---------R(thesmalllettersr,sàspeech)(thecapitalizedletterR,Sàpracticalevents)[C]Senseandreference（意義和指稱）Sense:isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform,abstractandde-contextualized.（主要涉及語言形式的固有意義，是抽象，不與語境相關的）Reference:meanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience（指語言形式在現(xiàn)實物質世界中的事物，是語言成分和非語言的經驗世界之間的關系）MovingstarIoncewasbittenbyadog.MorningstarMindyou.Thereisadogoverthere.[D]Majorsenserelations（主要的意義關系）①synonymy同義現(xiàn)象àthesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaninga.dialectalsynonyms方言同義詞——synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects（美式/英式英語）b.stylisticsynonyms文體同義詞——synonymsdifferinginstyle（問題、正式度不同）c.synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning情感或評價意義不同的同義詞（褒貶義）d.collocationalsynonyms搭配同義詞（詞語搭配、用法）e.semanticallydifferentsynonyms語義不同的同義詞（意義上稍有不同）②polysemy多義現(xiàn)象——onewordthathasmorethanonerelatedmeaning③homonymy同音異義Homophones:whentwowordsareidenticalinsound同音異義發(fā)音一樣Homographs:whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling同形異義拼寫一樣Completehomonyms:whentwowordsareidenticalbothinspellingandinSound完全同音異義詞④hyponymy下義關系——inclusiveness包含關系Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuperordinate.上坐標詞Thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaningiscalledhyponym.Co-hyponym下坐標詞⑤antonymy反義詞——oppositenessGradableantonyms等級反義詞（有中間詞，程度不同）Complementaryantonyms互補反義詞（兩個極端dead/alive，male/female）Relationalopposites:pairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenitems（關系反義詞）[E]Senserelationsbetweensentences句子之間的意義關系①XissynonymouswithY（X與Y同義）如果X真，Y真；X假，Y也假②XisinconsistentwithY（X與Y不一致）如果X真，Y假；X假，Y真③XentailsY(YisanentailmentofX)（X蘊含Y(Y是X的一個含義)）如果X真，Y一定真（去過法國à一定去過歐洲）如果X假，Y有可能真（沒去過法國à去/沒去過歐洲歐洲）④XpresupposesY(YisaprerequisiteofX)（X預設Y(Y是X的先決條件)）如果X真，Y一定真如果X假，Y仍然真⑤XisacontradictionX自我矛盾（總是假）⑥XissemanticallyanomalousX語義反常[F]Componentialanalysisàawaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning（成分分析法à分析詞匯意義的方法）Semanticfeatures語義特征:themeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,orsemanticfeaturesPhonemeàdistinctivefeatures區(qū)別特征Showhowthosewordsarerelatedinmeaning[G]PredicationanalysisàawaytoanalyzesentencemeaningproposedbyBritishlinguistG.Leech（述謂結構分析法à分析句子意義的方法）①themeaningofasentenceisnotthesumtotal(ofthemeaningsofallitscomponents)②Grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning包括語法意義和語義意義Grammaticality語法規(guī)范性selectionalrestrictions選擇限制規(guī)則Semanticanalysis:Predication(basicunit)述謂結構àtheabstractmeaningofthesentence句子的抽象意義Argument(s)變元（名詞成分）predicate謂詞（謂語）Logicalparticipant(s)Sthsaidaboutanargumentorstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargument(s)inasentenceThepredicatecanberegardedasthemainelement.Tomsmokes.àTOM(SMOKE)àone-placepredicationKidslikeapples.àKID,APPLE(LIKE)àtwo-placepredicationIt’sraining.à(BERAIN)àno-placepredicationChapter6Pragmatics語用學[A]ThedefinitionofpragmaticsPragmatics:thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication（是研究某一語言的使用者如何使用句子而達到成功交際）Whatessentiallydistinguishsemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.（在意義的研究中是否考慮到了語境的音素）Ifitisnot,itissemantics.Ifitis,itispragmatics.[B]Context語境/上下文Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.（由說話人和聽話人共有的知識構成）[C]Sentencemeaningandutterancemeaning★句子意義和話語意義e.g.Thedogisbarking.Ifwetakeitasagrammaticalunitandconsideritasaself-containedunitinisolation,thenwetreatitasasentence.如果把它當做一個語法單元，認為它是一個獨立于語境之外的單元，那就當做句子Ifwetakeitassomethingaspeakeruttersinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose,thenwearetreatingitasanutterance.如果把它當做是說話人在特定場景帶著特定目的所說的話，那就當做話語Meaningofasentenceisabstract,andde-contextualized.句子的意義是抽象的，脫離語境的Meaningofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontextualized.話語的意義是具體的，依賴語境的Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.話語的意義基于句子的意義之上，它是句子的抽象意義在交際的真實場景中的體現(xiàn)[D]SpeechActT