英語文獻(xiàn)寫作writing scientific research articles strategy and steps

WritingScientificResearchStrategyandAbridgedandGlossedAfullversionofthisbookisavailableforpurchaseMargaretCargillandPatrickMargaretCargillBA,DipEd,MEd(TESOL)AdjunctSeniorLecturerSchoolofEarthandEnvironmentalSciencesTheUniversityofAdelaideSouthAustralia5005PatrickO’ConnorBSc,PhDVisitingResearchFellowSchoolofEarthandEnvironmentalSciencesTheUniversityofAdelaideSouthAustralia5005AJohnWiley& .,WritingScientificResearchStrategyandMargaretCargillandPatrickAbridgedandGlossedIntroductiontotheAbridgedandGlossedEditionThiseditionhasbeenpreparedfortheWiley ScholarsNetworkandcontainsselectedchaptersonlyofthebook‘Writingscientificresearcharticles:Strategyandsteps’. andphrasesinthesechaptershavebeenidentifiedand‘glossed’(translated/interpreted)in.Nootherchangeshavebeenmadetothetext.Becausenotallthechaptersareincludedhere,somethingsmentionedinthetextarenotpresent–forexample,theAnswerPages.(Afullversionofthebookisavailableforpurchaseat ThechaptersincludedhereareTheIntroduction(whichisChapter8inthefullbook);Aprocessforpreparingamanuscript(Chapter15inthefullbook);andDevelodiscipline-specificEnglishskills(Chapter17inthefullbook).WehopeyouwillfindthiseditionMargaretCargillandPatrickO’ConnorAdelaide,January2012AJohnWiley& .,The Fivestagestoacompelling Stage1:Locatingyourprojectwithinanexistingfieldofscientific UsingreferencesinStages2and Avoidingwhenusingothers’ Indicatingthegaporresearch Stage4:Thestatementofpurposeormain Suggestedprocessfordraftingan Editingforlogical Aprocessforpreparinga Initialpreparation Editing Apre-review Develodiscipline-specificEnglish WhatkindsofEnglisherrorsmatter Strategic(andacceptable!)languagere-use:sentencetem Moreaboutnoun Concordancing:atoolfordeveloyourdiscipline-specificinscience UsingtheEnglisharticles(a/an,the)appropriayinscience Usingwhichand The

Asyourprimaryreadingaudience[主要讀者]ofeditorandrefereeswillstartreadingattheIntroduction,aneffectiveIntroductionisparticularlyimportant.Refereesarelikelytolookhereforevidencetoanswerthefollowingquestions.[審IsthecontributionIsthecontributionIsitsuitableforpublicationintheFivestagestoacompellingAppliedlinguisticsresearchershaveidentifiedfivemainstages[主要步驟]thatcommonlyappearinresearcharticleIntroductions(Figure1.1).Thesestageshavebeenidentifiedthroughyzingmanypublishedarticles[通過分析大量已文章而確定的],andinterestingvariationshavebeenfoundacrossdifferentsubdisciplinesofscience.However,forourpurposesinthisbook,thefivebroadstagesgiveusausefulframeworkthatisflexibleenoughtobeapplicableinmostcontexts[非常靈活、適用于多數(shù)情況的有用框架].Butpleaserememberthattheydonotrepresentarecipetobefollowedunreflectively[這些步驟不是要大家像遵循秘訣似的不假思索地盲從];rather,theyprovideapatternforyoutotestonpapersinyourownfield[一個(gè)用于對(duì)你自己學(xué)科領(lǐng)域中（寫作）進(jìn)行摸索學(xué)習(xí)的模式],andtorefineintoausefultoolforyourownuse.ThesestagesdonotalwaysoccurstrictlyintheordergiveninFigure8.1,andsomemayberepeated[不總是嚴(yán)格按照?qǐng)D8.1所示的次序出現(xiàn)，有時(shí)還有可能會(huì)重復(fù)（出現(xiàn)）]withinagivenIntroduction.ForexampleStage2/Stage3sequencesoftenrecurwhenanauthorwantstojustifyspecificaspectsorcom-ponentsofastudy.Tohelpyouseewhatwemeanbythesestages,wefirstaskyoutoreadthearticleintroductionpresentedinTable1.1andconsiderouridentificationofthestagesandtheirlocations.TaskTask1.1IntroductionReadtheintroductionofyourselectedPEA[提供的范文],decideifallstagesarepresent,andmarkwhereeachonebeginsandends.(RememberthatitispossiblethatstagesmayberepeatedorcomeinadifferentordertothatsuggestedinFigureCompareyourfindingswithoursuggestionsintheAnswerNowdothesameforyourownSA（你從你自己的學(xué)科領(lǐng)域）].DiscussyourfindingswithacolleagueorteacherifStatementsaboutthefieldofresearchtoprovidethereaderwithasettingorcontextfortheproblemtobeinvestigatedandtoclaimitscentrality[重要，地位]orimportance.Morespecificstatementsabouttheaspectsoftheproblemalreadystudiedbyotherresearcherslayingafoundation[打基礎(chǔ)，做鋪墊]ofinformationalreadyknown.Statementsthatindicatetheneedformoreinvestigation,creatingagaporforthepresentstudytofillofthewriter’sstudyoroutliningitsmainactivityorfindings.Optionalstatement(sthatgiveapositive]forcarryingouttheFig.1.1FivestagesofanIntroductiontoascienceresearcharticle(afterWeissberg&Buker1990).Table1.1IdentificationofstagesintheIntroductionto“Useofin15N-labellingtoestimatethetotalbelow-groundnitrogenofpasturelegumesinintactsoil-ntsystems”(McNeilletal.1997). Currentestimatesofthebelow-groundproductionofNbypasturelegumesarescarceandrelymainlyondatafromharvestedmacro-roots(Burton1976;Reeves1984)withlittleaccounttakenoffinerootmaterialorsolublerootNleachedbyrootwashing.Samplingtoobtaintheentirerootbiomassisextremelydifficult(SauerbeckandJohnen1977)sincemanyroots,particularlythoseofpasturespecies(EllisandBarnes1973),arefragileandtoofinetoberecoveredbywetsieving.Furthermore,theinterfacebetweentherootandthesoilisnoteasytodetermineandlegumederivedNwillexistnotonlyasliveintactrootbutinavarietyofotherforms,oftentermedrhizodeposits(Whipps1990).AnapproachisaccordinglyrequiredwhichenablesinsitulabellingofNinthelegumerootsystemunderundisturbedconditionscoupledwithsubsequentrecoveryandmeasurementofthatlegumeNinalloftheinter-relatedbelow-groundfractions.Sophisticatedtechniquesexisttolabelrootswith15NviaexposureofshootstoanatmospherecontaininglabelledNH3(Porteretal.1972;JanzenandBruinsma1989)butsuchtechniqueswouldnotbesuitableforlabellingapasturelegumewithinamixedsward.LabelledN2atmospheres(Warembourgetal.1982;McNeilletal.1994)havebeenusedtolabelspecificallythelegumecomponentofamixedswardviaN2fixationinnodules.However,thesetechniquesrequirecomplexandexpensiveenclosureequipment,whichlimitsreplicationandcannotbeeasilyappliedtofieldsituations;furthermore,non-symbioticN2fixationoflabelmayoccurinsomesoilsandcomplicatetheinterpretationoffateofbelow-groundlegumeN.

Stage1Stage3inStage3(broadgap)StageStageStageStageTable1.1( Thesplit-roottechniquehasalsobeenusedto15Ndirectlyintontsbyexposingoneisolatedportionoftherootsystemto15Neitherinsolutionorsoil(SawatskyandSoper1991;Jensen1996),butthisnecessitatessomedegreedisturbanceofthenaturalsystem.FoliarfeedingdoesnotdisturbthesystemandhastheadditionaladvantagethatshootstoleratehigherconcentrationsofNthanroots(Wittweretal.1963).Sprayapplicationof15N-labelledureahasbeensuccessfullyusedtolabellegumesinsituunderfieldconditions(Zebarthetal.1991)butrunoffof15N-labelledsolutionsfromfoliagetothesoilwillcomplicateinterpretationofroot-soildynamics.RussellandFillery(1996),usingastem-feedingtechnique,haveshownthatinsitu15N-labellingoflupinntsgrowinginsoilcoresenabledtotalbelow-groundNtobeestimatedunderrelativelyundisturbedconditions,buttheyindicatedthatthetechniquewasnotadaptabletoall nts,particularlypasturespecies.Feedingofindividualleaveswithasolutioncontaining15Nisatechniquethathasbeenwidelyusedforphysiologicalstudiesinwheat(Paltaetal.1991)andlegumes(OghoghorieandPatePate1973).Thepotentialofthetechniqueforinvestigatingsoil-ntNdynamicswasnotedaslongas10yearsagobyLedgardetal.(1985)followingtheuseof15Nleaf-feedinginastudyofofsubterraneancloverandserradellagrowinginsoil,and(ii)toobtaintativeestimatesoftotalbelow-groundNaccretionbythesepasture15Nleaf-feedingtechniquespecificallytolabelofsubterraneancloverandserradellagrowinginsoil,and(ii)toobtaintativeestimatesoftotalbelow-groundNaccretionbythesepasture15Nleaf-feedingtechniquespecificallytolabelinsituthe

StageStageStageStageStageStageStage[暗示]inChChTheStage1:LocatingyourprojectwithinanexistingfieldofscientificresearchInStage1,authorsmostlybeginwithbroadstatementsthatwouldgenerallybeacceptedasfactbythemembersoftheirreadingaudience.ThepresenttenseisoftenusedforthiskindofstatementbecauseonefunctionofthepresenttenseinEnglishisexpressinginformationperceivedasalwaystrue.SentenceswritteninthepresentperfecttensearealsocommoninStage1,expressingwhathasbeenfoundoveranextendedperiodinthepastanduptothepresent.Thesestatementsmayormaynotincludereferences,dependingonthefieldandthetopicofthepaper.TaskTask1.2IntroductionStage1CheckthefirstparagraphsoftheIntroductionsofthetwoPEAsandcompleteTable1.2.ThencheckyouranswerswithoursuggestionsintheAnswer Table1.2Task1.2:IntroductionStage1 Kaiseretal.Aresomesentenceswritteninthepresenttense?Howmany?Aresomesentenceswritteninthepresentperfecttense?Howmany?Whichtenseisusedmore?Whydoyouthinkthisisthecase?Howmanysentencescontainreferences?Whatkindsofsentencesdonothave

andAbbott(2008)Authorsthenseektomovetheirreaderssmoothlyfromthesebroad,generalstatementstowardsonesub-areaofthefield,andthentotheauthors’ownparticu-lartopic.Onewaytothinkaboutthisistobegininaselectedcountryandimagineyouaremovingfromthatcountry(thebroadareawheretheIntroductionbegins)andzoominginonaprovinceinthatcountry,andfinallyfocusingonaparticularcity,whichrepresentsthetopicareaofresearchtobepresentedinthepaper.TaskTask1.3CountrytocityinStage1LookattheIntroductionofyourselectedPEA.Whatisthecountry?Theprovince?Thecity?CheckyouranswersagainstoursuggestionsintheAnswer2NowdothesametaskfortheIntroductiontotheSAyouareCountry?Province?City?3NowtrytosuggestthesethreefeaturesforyourOA.Remember,your“city”isnotyourpurposeforconductingthestudy,butratherthespecifictopicareaforyourpaper.Country?Province?City?Writersmovetheirreadersthroughthesestepsbylinkingtheirsentencesthroughthepositioningofoldandnewinformation.Oldinformationisanyinformationthatthereaderalreadyknows;itiscedtowardsthebeginningofsentences.Newinformationcomestowardstheendofsentences.(Thisconventionisveryimportantforimprovingflowinallformsoftechnicalwriting.)SeeTask1.4.UsingreferencesinStages2andInStages2and3ofanIntroduction(seeFigure1.1)authorsuseselectedliturefromtheirfieldtojustifytheirstudyandconstructagapornichefortheirownwork.ChTheChTheTask1.4IdentifyingoldorgivenLookattheextractfromtheIntroductioninKaiseretal.(2003)belowandunderlinethewordsthatrepresentorrefertooldinformation(informationthereaderalreadyknowsabout,alsocalledgiveninformation).LegumesformsymbioticassociationswithN2-fixingsoil-bornebacteriaoftheRhizobiumfamily.Thesymbiosisbeginswhencompatiblebacteriainvadelegumeroothairs,signallingthedivisionofinnercorticalrootcellsandtheformationofanodule.Invadingbacteriamigratetothedevelonodulebywayofan‘infectionthread’,comprisedofaninvaginatedcellwall.Intheinnercortex,bacteriaarereleasedintothecellcytosol,envelopedinamodifiedsmamembrane(theperibacteroidmembrane(PBM)),toformanorganelle-likestruc-turecalledthesymbiosome,whichconsistsofbacteroid,PBMandtheinterveningperibacteroidspace(PBS;WhiteheadandDay,1997).Thebacteria,subsequently,differentiateintotheN2-fixingbacteroidform.ThesymbiosisallowstheaccessoflegumestoatmosphericN2,whichisreducedtoNH4+ bythebacteroidenzymenitrogenase.InexchangeforreducedN,the ntprovidescarbontothenodulestosupportbacterialrespiration,alow-oxygenenvironmentinthenodulesuitableforbacteroidnitrogenaseactivity,andalltheessentialnutritionalelementsneces-saryforbacteroidactivity.Consequently,nutrienttransportacrossthePBMisanimportantcontrolmechanisminthepromotionandregulationofthesymbiosis.Theywritesentencessupportedbyreferencestothelituretheyhaveselected.Inthiscontext,thetermliturereferstoallthepublishedresearcharticles,reviewarticles,andbooksinagivenfield.Thetermalsoincludesinformationpublishedonwebsitesthathavebeenpeer-reviewedorbelongtoorganizationswithappropriatescientificreputations.Referencing:howtodoitandwhyyouneedReferencestootherpublishedstudies,alsoknownascitationsorin-textcitations,canbeusedinallstagesoftheIntroduction,asyouhaveseeninthesampleswehavelookedat.Theyappearinthetexteitherasasurnameandyearinbrackets,e.g.(McNeill2000),orasanumber,e.g.7.Thedetailsofthepresentationdependonthestylestipulatedbythejournal.ChecktheInstructionstoContributorsofyourtargetjournalforthenecessaryinformationonreferencingstyle.Thesereferencesrefertothelistofreferencesattheendofthepaper,wherethefullpublicationdetailsareCitationsareparticularlyvitalinshowingthatyouknowclearlytheworkthathasbeenconductedbyothersinyourcityarea(seeTask1.3above),andthereforewhathasnotbeendoneandneedstobedone:thegapthatyourstudywillfill.ThisfunctioniscarriedoutinStages2and3.Whatyouarerequiredtodohereis,ineffect,toconstructanargumentwhichjustifiesyourownstudyandshowswhyandhowitisimportant.UsingcitationtodevelopyourownBelowareexamplesofpartsofparagraphsusingthreedifferentcitationmethodsthereferencescitedhavebeeninventedfordemonstrationpurposesonly).Thesecanbeinformationisgivenprominenceinthesentence;andweakauthorprominent,wheretheideasofauthor(s)aregivenprominence,butauthornamesdonotappearinthemainpartofthesentence.Observehowthedifferentmethodscontributetothewayinwhichthewriter’sargumentisdeveloped.(N.B.Forthissection,thetermauthorisusedfortheauthorofapublishedpaperthatisbeingcited;thetermwriterisusedtorefertothe writingthetextthatcitestheauthor’swork.)Shrinkingmarketsarealsoevidentinotherareas.*Thewoolindustryisexperiencingdifficultiesrelatedtofallingdemandworldwidesincethedevelopmentofhigh-qualitysyntheticfibres(Smith2000).ThisisthedefaultstyleinmanyareasofscienceandistheonlystyleusedintheIntroductionsofthetwoPEAs.However,therearetwootheroptionsthatshouldalsobepartofawriter’srepertoire,forusewhenappropriate.industryisexperiencingdifficultiesrelatedtofallingdemandworldwidesincethedevelopmentofhigh-qualitysyntheticfibres.Thisstylegivesmoreoptiontoshowthewriter’sviewofthecitedfact.Inthiscase,itshowsthatthewriter(you!)agreeswithSmith.industrydifficultiesweremorerelatedtoqualityofsupplythantodemandissues.ItisclearthatconsiderabledisagreementexistsabouttheunderlyingsourcesoftheseThisstylealsoallowstheuseofverbssuchasargued,whichgivethereaderadvancenoticethatahoweverorsomeothercontrastmaybecoming,andindicatethatwhatisbeingcitedisnotnecessarilyacceptedascorrectbyyou,thewriter.However,thereisadangerattachedtotheauthorprominentstyle.Ifitisover-used,itcanmakethetextsoundlikealist,ratherthanalogicallyconstructedargument.We mendthatyouusethisstylesparingly,perhapswhenyouareapproachingthespecificsofthegapyourstudywilladdress.Itisalsousefultopaycloseattentiontothepapersyoureadinyourownfield,tocheckhowoften,ifatall,thisstyleappears.Severalauthorshavereportedthatthewoolindustryisexperiencingdifficultiesrelatedtofallingdemandsincethedevelopmentofhigh-qualitysyntheticfibrespreviousparagraph(whichdiscussedshrinkingmarkets),andtoalertthereadertothetopicoftheChTheTask1.5CitationstylesinChTheReadtheIntroductionextractpresentedinTable1.3andobservehowthedifferentcitationstylesareused.Table1.3UseofdifferentcitationstylesinasegmentoftheIntroductionfromMcNeilletal.(1997). CitationFoliarfeedingdoesnotdisturbthesystemandhasthe additionaladvantagethatshootstoleratehigherconcentrationsofNthanroots(Wittweretal.Sprayapplicationof15N-labelledureahasbeen successfullyusedtolabellegumesinsituunderfield conditions(Zebarthetal.1991)butrunoffof Writer’sevaluation15N-labelledsolutionsfromfoliagetothesoilwill complicateinterpretationofroot-soildynamics.RussellandFillery(1996),usingastem-feedinghaveshownthatinsitu15N-labellingoflupin growinginsoilcoresenabledtotalbelow-groundN tobeestimatedunderrelativelyundisturbedconditions, buttheyindicatedthatthetechniquewasnot toall nts,particularlypasturespecies.Feedingof individualleaveswithasolutioncontaining15Nisatechniquethathasbeenwidelyusedforphysiologicalstudiesinwheat(Paltaetal.1991)andlegumes(OghoghorieandPate1972;Pate1973).Thepotential Authorprominent,ofthetechniqueforinvestigatingsoil- ntNdynamics butusingthepassivewasnotedaslongas10yearsagobyLedgardetal.(1985) voicesothatthefollowingtheuseof15Nleaf-feedinginastudyof link(technique)Ntransferfromlegumetoassociatedgrass. cancomefirstinthesentenceasoldThismethodhasageneralreferencetoauthorsinthesubjectandthenmorethanonereferenceinthebrackets.Itisfollowedherebyanauthorprominentcitation.Thisstylecanbeusefulasatopicsentencewhenbeginninganewsubtopicorlineofargument.Notethatthisstylerequirestheuseofthepresentperfecttense(haveWriterschoosetheircitationmethodtofitwiththewaytheirparagraphisadvancingtheirargument.CitingwhenyoucannotobtaintheoriginalEditorsusuallyrequirethatwritersciteonlythosepapersthattheyhaveactuallyread.However,ifyoucannotobtaintheoriginalarticleandarethereforeobligedtorelyonanotherauthor’sinterpretationofafactorfindingyouwanttocite,youmayusethefollowingformofsecondarycitationin-text.[Thefindingorfactyouwanttocite](Smith1962,citedinJonesInsuchcases,onlyJones(2002)appearsinthereferenceAnotherimportantreasontopaycarefulattentiontoreferencingistoavoidgiarizingotherpeople’sworkunintentionally. isusingdata,ideas,orwordsthatoriginatedinworkbyanother withoutappropriayac-knowledgingtheirsource.Itisgenerallyregardedasaformofcheatinginacademicandpublishingcontexts,andpaperswillberejectedifisdetected.pletecitationalsopreventsyourgainingcreditforknowingtheworkofotherresearchersinthefield.Effectiveandinclusivecitationhelpsyoupresentyourselfasaknowledgeablememberoftheresearchcommunity,whichcanbeimportantintermsoftheimpressionyoumakeonrefereesevaluatingyourmanuscripts.ItallowsotherstobenefitfromthesourcesofinformationyouhaveAvoidingrequireswriterstodotwothings:tobeawareofthekindsofsituationswhereinadvertentislikelytooccur;andtodevelopeffectivenote-takingpracticestoensuretheyremainawareofthestatusoftheirnotesastheyconvertthemintosentencesinapaperforsubmission.TaskTask1.6Belowaretwoversionsofthesameinformation,adaptedfromtheIntroductioninMcNeilletal.(1997).Inversion2,identifywherethewriterhasgiarizedbywritinginhisorherownvoiceideasthatoriginatedinanother demonstratedinversion1).Version1RussellandFillery(1996),usingastem-feedingtechnique,haveshownthatinsitu15N-labellingoflupinntsgrowinginsoilcoresenabledtotalbelow-groundNtobeestimatedunderrelativelyundisturbedconditions,buttheyindicatedthatthetechniquewasnotadaptabletonts,particularlypastureVersion2RussellandFillery(1996),usingastem-feedingtechnique,haveshownthatinsitu15N-labellingoflupinntsgrowinginsoilcoresenabledtotalbelow-groundNtobeestimatedunderrelativelyundisturbedconditions.However,thistechniqueisnotadaptabletoallnts,particularlypasturespecies.CheckyouranswersintheAnswerTheimportantthingtowatchforisthatitiscleartoyourreaderwhethertheideaorfactyouareusingineachandeverysentenceisyourown,orhascomefromtheworkofanother .Ifitcomesfromsomeoneelse’swork,citethem!Itispossiblethatthe whoseideaitoriginallywaswillbearefereeofyourpaper,andtheywillbesuretonoticetheproblem.Inanycase,therefereeswillknowtheliturewell,soitisveryimportanttobeaccurateinyourcitationpractices.Rememberalsothatdirectquotationsusingquotationmarksorinvertedcommas(“...”)areextremelyrareinsciencewriting.Thismeansthatauthorsneedtoparaphrasesentencesthatappearintheworkofotherauthors,ratherthancopyingthemverbatim.However,rememberalsothatyoucanexpandyourrepertoireofsentencestructuresbyremovingthecontent(mostoftenthenounphrases,indicatedbyNPintheexamplebelow)fromsentencesthatappealtoyouandre-usingthes(orsentencetemte)foryourowncontent.Forexample,fromthesentenceinTask1.6,version1,youcouldreusethiss:[Authors],using[NP1],haveshownthat[NP2]enabled[NP3]tobeestimatedunder4],particularly[NPSeeChapter3formoredetailsofthisIndicatingthegaporresearchThisisStage3ofanIntroduction(seeFigure1.1),anditcanbewritteninamultitudeofways.Asdiscussedpreviously,authorsoftenpresentabroadgapearlyintheIntroduction,andamorespecificoneclosetotheend.Examplesincludethefollowing,takenfromBritton-SimmonsandAbbott(2008)(seeChapter19):However,understandinghowtheseprocessesincttoregulateinvasionsremainsamajorchallengeinecology.Despiteitsacknowledgedimportance,propagulepressurehasrarelybeenmanipu-regulateinvasionsuccessisnotwellunderstood.Itiscommontofindso-calledsignalwordsthatindicatethataStage3statementisbeingmade.Intheexamplesabovesuchsignalwordsincludehowever,remainsamajorchallenge,rarely,notwellunderstood,andpresentlyunclear.TaskTask1.7SignalwordsfortheresearchgaporRereadtheIntroductionsfromMcNeilletal.(1997)(seeTable1.1)andyourselectedPEA,andidentifythesignalwordsthatindicateagapisbeingdescribed.ListthemandthencheckthelistagainstoursuggestionsintheAnswerpages.Task1.8DraftingyourownIntroduction:StageBegintodraftStage3fortheIntroductionofyourownpaper,ifStage4:ThestatementofpurposeormainAttheendoftheIntroductionauthorssetupthereaders’expectationsoftherestofthepaper:theylthemwhattheycanexpecttolearnabouttheresearchbeingAsindicatedinFigure1.1,Stage4oftheIntroductionisgenerallyintheformoftheaimorpurposeofthestudytobereported,ortheprincipalactivityorfindingofthestudy.AuthorshaveconsiderableflexibilityinchoosinghowtheywillwordtheirStage4,anditcanbeinstructivetopayattentiontohowthisisdoneineachpaperthatyoureadforyourresearch.Youmayliketokeepalistofpossiblewordings,tohelpwhenyoucometothewritingofyourownpapers.Task1.9Stage4sentence IdentifytheStage4intheIntroductioninMcNeilletal.(1997),presentedinTable1.1,andinyourselectedPEA.Wehaveprovidedas,orsentencetemte,fromeachoneintheAnswerpages.TaskTask1.10DraftingyourownIntroduction:StageDraftaStage4fortheIntroductionofyourownpaper,ifappropriate.WriteitsothatitrunssmoothlyonfromyourStage3gapstatement,toformtheclosingpartofyourIntroduction.Makesurethatallthe inyourtitlehavebeenusedinthesesentences,tomeettheexpectationsyousetupforyourreaderswhentheyreadthetitle.SuggestedprocessfordraftinganIntroductionHereisasummaryofaprocessfordraftinganIntroduction.Itisusefulafteryouhavemadethekeydecisionsabouttheresultsyouwillincludeinthepaper,andwhattheymeanfortheaudiencewhowillreadthepaper.1BeginwithStage4.Writeanaimstatement,orastatementdescribingwhatthepapersetsouttodo.ItisusuallytheeasiestpartoftheIntroductiontowrite.ItwillappearinthefinalparagraphoftheIntroduction,butitisusefultowriteitearlyinthedraftingprocess[但在寫草稿過程中先寫這一部分是個(gè)十分有用的策略].DraftStage3next:thegaporneedforfurtherwork[研究空白或需要深入開展的工作Aswehaveseenintheprevioussections,theremaybeoneormoresub-gapsatdifferentcesinyourIntroduction,aswellasaStage3statementthatleadsintoStage4.ConsiderbeginningyourStage3sentenceswithwordssuchashoweveroralthough,andincorporatingwordsindicatinganeedformoreresearch,suchaslittleinformation,fewstudies,unclear,orneedsfurtherinvestigation.ThenthinkabouthowtobeginStage1,thesetting.Thinkaboutyourintendedaudienceandtheirinterestsandbackgroundknowledge,andtheideasyouhavehighlightedinyourtitle[你的目標(biāo)讀者群、他們的所在和知識(shí)背景，以及你在標(biāo)題中強(qiáng)調(diào)的觀點(diǎn)].Trytobeginwithwordsandconceptsthatwillimmediaygrabtheattention[引起注意]ofyourintendedreaders.NextarrangetheinformationyouhavecollectedfromthelitureintoStage2.Thisisaveryimportantpartandyouwillprobablyneedquiteabitoftimetowriteit.Youmayneedtodosomemoresearchingoftheliture[做的文獻(xiàn)檢索工作],tomakesureyouhavedonethebestpossiblejoboffindingtherelevantwork[盡可能地找到（所有）相關(guān)文獻(xiàn)]intheareaandthemostrecentstudies.CombinethestagesintoacoherentIntroduction[連貫的引言].Youmayneedtoaddadditionalsentencesprovidingbackground,and/ortorearrangesentencesorsectionstogetthebestpossiblelogicaldevelopment盡可能地使語言具有較強(qiáng)的ChThe邏輯性ChTheInEnglishwriting,theresponsibilityrestswiththewritertoensurethatthereaderrecognizesthelogicalflowoftheargumentbeingpresented[作者有責(zé)任確保讀者能夠看出文中所闡釋論點(diǎn)的邏輯關(guān)系].Thisisnotthecaseinalllanguages!However,evenforwriterswithEnglishasafirstlanguage,thestrategiesforachievingthisgoalintheirwritingareoftennotobvious.Wesuggestsomeimportantstrategiesinthefollowingsections.Wehavementionedseveralofthesepreviouslyinthebook,butthissectionbringsthemtogetherintoacoherentsetandprovidesyo