【課件】education儒家傳統(tǒng)家教

ChinesePsychology1OutlineI.ChineseChildhoodSocializationII.EmotionAmongtheChineseIII.TheRoleofBeliefinChineseCultureIV.ModernPersonalitytheory2I.ChineseChildhoodSocializationPsychologists:focusonindividuals,examineindividualcapacitiesandvariationinchilddevelopment.Anthropologies:paymoreattentiontoculturalenvironmentalinfluences,e.g.socio-economicconditionofapopulation3I.ChineseChildhoodSocializationChildhoodSocialization:1.howparentsreartheirchildren2.howchildrenlearntobecomeacceptablemembersofasociety.i.e.whatisanacceptableChinesewayofsocializingchildrenandwhatkindofadultsChinesesocializationaimstoproduce.4I.1TheConfucianTraditionofParentalEducation儒家傳統(tǒng)家教Traitionally,Chinesescholarsandpoliticalauthoritieshaveaclearideaabouttheconceptofthechild.Ideaswerefirststatedinessays(in1stcenturyB.C)byConfucianscholars,whoproposedtheimportantroleadultfamilymembersshouldassumeinearlychildhoodeducation.BythetimeoftheMing明(1368-1644)andQing清(1644-1911)dynasties,neo-Confucian新儒家scholarswroteessaysinplainlanguagetoguideparentsinprovidingtheirchildrenwithproperdiscipline(e.g.theSanzijing三字經i.e.“人之初,性名善,性相近,習相遠…”).5I.1TheConfucianTraditionofParentalEducationInthisview,apersonbynaturedoesnotbecomeanacceptablehumanbeingunlesseducatedthroughdeliberateeffortstoattainren.Theemphasisisplacedbothonpaternalresponsibilityforinstructionandthechild’sresponsibilityforlearningaboutthewayofbecominghuman(zuoren做人).6I.1.1EnvironmentalTheoriesofChildDevelopmentThebasicassumptionoftheConfucianscholarsisthatachild’sdispositionderivesfromenvironmentalinfluences,evenbeforebirthandduringgestation.e.g.theneedfor“wombeducation”胎教“Whenawomanbecomespregnantsheisputintoaschoolof‘gestatonyeducation,’inorderthatshemaybeabletoimparttothechildaproperdispositionbeforeitisborn.”“Ifsheisaffectedbygoodthingsthechildwillbegood,ifbybadthingsthechildwillbebad.”7I.1.1EnvironmentalTheoriesofChildDevelopmentApregnantwomanseekstoshapethecharacterofthecomingchildbyrestrictingheractivitiesAfterthechildisborn,parentsmustprovidethecorrectenvironmentforraisingit.Agoodmotherseeksthebestneighborhoodforraisingherchild.E.g.Mencius’motherwhomovedhousethreetimestoavoidbadenvironmentalinfluencestoMencius(mentionedinLeiNuZhuan烈女傳,77-6B.C.)8I.1.1EnvironmentalTheoriesofChildDevelopmentTheprocessoflearningtobecomehuman,accordingtoConfuciantheorists,mustbeginearlyenoughinthefamily.TheancientChinesetheoriesofchilddevelopmentemphasizetheformationofhabitsofcorrectbehaviorwithoutatraceofdeliberateteachingorcoercion.9I.1.2ModelsandStrategiesofTraditionalChildRearingThus,teachingbyexample身教wasandstillisanimportantprinciple.E.g.afather,aschool-teacherParents,consideredachild’sfirstteachers,mustmodelexemplarybehaviortosetalife-longfoundationforthechild.(yishenzuoze以身作則).10I.1.3TrainingofAffectiveControlEarlytraininginthecontrolofaffectivedisplayispartoftheeducationingoodmanners.YanshiJiaxun,Yan’sFamilyTeaching顏氏家訓(531-91AD):trainachildfrominfant:tointerpretadult’sfacialexpressionsandtoactaccordingtoparentalwishes.“Ourfamilyhasalwaysemphasizedstrictnessinteachingchildren.WhenIwasayoungchildathome,wewalkedproperlyandtookeverystepdelicately,spokegentlyandcalmly,showedgreatreverenceandfearinfrontofparentsandelders.”Yan’s20essaysonfamilyeducationsetamodelforlaterConfucianscholars.11I.1.3TrainingofAffectiveControlEmphasis:composed,reverentialbehaviorandontherestrictionofphysicalactivitiesamongchildren.Textonfamilyeducation:Parentsshouldteachtheirchildren“noleaping,arguing,joking,orusingvulgarlanguage.”“Howchildrenshouldbetaughttosit,stand,walk,speak,bow,recite,andwrite.”“Thelittleonesareexhortedalwaystowalkslowlywiththearmsheldunderthesleeves,withnowavingofthearmsorjumping.”12I.1.3TrainingofAffectiveControlImportantaspectofsocializationintraditionalChineseculture:totrainapersontobebugouyanxiao不茍言笑,to

nevertorevealone’sthoughtsandfeelings.Tosumup:Chineseparentswerepressuredtoinstillsolemnityandself-controlearlyonintheirchildren.13I.1.4OnDongshi懂事(understandingthings)Theageatwhichachildisoldenoughtobepunishedisbasedontheassumeddevelopmentalstagesofaperson’scapacityformoralreasoning:calleddongshi(understandingthings)“Whenthesonreachestheageofdongshi(understanding/reason),thefathermustbeseriousandproperinhisspeechandwayoflivinginordertoteachhisson.”14I.1.4OnDongshi(understandingthings)InSimaGuang’s司馬程(AD1019-86)Jiafan家訓

(FamilyExamples):“Assoonasthechildcaneatbyhimself,hemustbetaughttoeatwithhisrighthand.Familydisciplinemustbeginassoonasthechildcantalkandbegintoknowthings.Bytheageofsix,teachingofnumbersandnamesofthingsmustbegin.”Chengbrothers程氏兄弟(11centuryConfucianscholars)said,“Peopleinancienttimesdisciplinetheirchildrenassoonastheycaneatandtalk.”15I.1.4OnDongshi(understandingthings)Filialdevotion孝mustbetaughttotoddlersassoonastheycanwalk/talk.E.g.topaydailyrespecttograndparentsandtoaddresselderlyproperly.“Thefamilyregulationsaresuchthatassoonasachildbeginstounderstand,heisnotonlytaughttoobey,butalsoloseshisfreedomofaction.”Yan’sFamilyTeaching:evenearlierteachingofinfant–tobeawareofadults’emotionalstates,todistinguishpleasurefromanger.“Toeducateadaughter-in-law,onemustbeginonthefirstofmarriage;toeducateachild,onemustbeginwithinfancy.”16I.1.4OnDongshi(understandingthings)Chineseproducedspecifictheoriesofpsychologicaldevelopment.LiShiyi李史義(AD1611-72):studyingattheageoffour,inordertotakeadvantageofaninnatecapacityformemorizationinchildhood.ForLi,amanbytheageof15shoulddevelopcertaincapacity,andshouldbepushedharderinlearningtheclassics(TheFourBooks&FiveTexts四書五經)toprepareforthenationalexamination科舉.17I.1.4OnDongshi(understandingthings)ChinesescholarstakeupConfuciusastheirmodelteacherandfollowapassageintheAnalects.(Analects2.4):Confuciussays,“At15,Isetmyheartonlearning.At30,Itookmystand.At40,Iwasnolongerindoubt.At50,Iknowthepropensityoftian.At60,Ifollowthemyearswereattuned.At70,Ifollowedthepropensityoftianwithoutoversteppingtheline.”“吾十五而有志于學,三十而立,四十而不惑,五十而知天命,六十而耳順,七十而從心所欲不越矩.”18I.2ContemporaryChineseConceptionsofSocializationChinesesocialization:trainingforobedienceforproperconductforimpulse-controlfortheacceptanceofsocialobligations

**Arelativelackofemphasisisgiventoindependence,assertiveness,andcreativity(theseareextremelyimportantfeaturesforWesternchild-socialization).19I.2.1VariousChineseAreas:ShanghaiWhatisaGoodChild?1.goodmoralcharacter(lovedothers,group-oriented,cooperative,respectselders,goodmanners,dongshi,anunderstandingofadults’desires)2.Intelligence(eagertostudyinschool,todohomework,smart,aquicklearner)3.obedience(obeystherules,self-reliant,notdependingonparentsfordressing,washing,andstudying)4.goodhealth5.goodpersonality(lively,active,autonomous,confident,brave)20I.2.1VariousChineseAreas:ShanghaiWhatisagoodparent?1.Oneisresponsibleaboutherchildreceivingagoodeducation.2.Onewhobehavesoneselfsoastosetagoodmodelforthechild.Thegoalofchildtraininginthefamily:1.Carryoutmoraleducationforthechildren,especiallyinteachinghonestyandbravery.2.Tocoachthechildtostudy3.Toenrichthechild’sgoodpersonality4.Tosupporttheschool,ensurethechilddoeshomework21I.2.1VariousChineseAreas:ShanghaiBoysandgirlsshouldreceiveequallevelsofeducation,adeparturefromtraditionalChineseattitude.Mothersexpecttodisciplineboysmoreseverelythandofathers.Thisalsovariesfromtraditionalthinking.Mothersaretakingamoreactiveanddecisiveroleindiscipliningchildren,sameinTaiwanandHongKong.22I.2.1VariousChineseAreas:ShanghaiParentsopposedthetraditionalidea:“whenparentsdisciplinethechild,heorsheshouldobeyandshouldnottalkback.”Yet,manytraditionalways:“Praisingchildrenisharmfultochildren’sdevelopment.”“Ifachildfailsinschool,theentirefamilyisashamed.”“Parentsshouldnotdisplayintimacyinthepresenceoftheirchild.”“Parentsopposetotheideathattheyneedtoeducatetheirolderchildtolearnaboutdating.”23I.2.2VariousChineseAreas:SouthernTaiwanFirst,mouldingachild’scharactertofulfillmoralteachingisthemaingoalofsocializationathome.Parentsshouldteachdesirablevalues(respectforeldersandidentificationwithChineseculture).Toteachachildmannersandthattheyshouldobeyrules.Tolearnto“becomehuman.”(zuoren做人)Mostparentsexpectchildrentoachieveinschoolandtograduatefromcollege.Mostdonotagreethatchildrenshouldbeassertive,astheyvaluealovingparent-childrelationship.24I.2.2VariousChineseAreas:SouthernTaiwanDifferentfromShanghaiparents:Howparentsshouldbehaveinrearingtheirchildren.Parentsshouldshowloving,tendercaretochildren,aviewthatdisagreeswiththeancientConfucianmaximthatafathermustbestrict&amothermustbekind.Parentsagreethatachildshouldhaveasayinmatterthataffectthem.Parentsshouldkeeppromisesandapologizeiftheyarewrong.ContrastwithparentsinShanghai:Taiwaneseparentsagreeonembracingandkissingtoshowlove.Itisallrighttoshowintimacywiththeirspouseinfrontoftheirchildren.25I.2.2VariousChineseAreas:SouthernTaiwanParentsareagainststrictdisciplinarymeasures:againsttheuseofcorporalpunishmentTheydonotbelieveparentsarealwaysright26I.2.3VariousChineseAreas:SingaporeParentsaremoreconservative/traditionalinmanyaspectsofchildhoodsocializationthantheothertwoareas.Goalofsocialization:1.education2.maintenanceofChineseidentity(e.g.whengrownup,nottomarryapersonwhoisnotChinese)3.assertiveness(moreWesternized).27I.2.3VariousChineseAreas:SingaporeParentstookthepositionthattheyaremoreWesternized,citingthattheyallowtheirchildrentobeassertive.However,theyretainmanytraditionalChinesevaluesintheareasoffamilyeducation,moraleducation,andoninterpersonalrelationships.28I.2.3VariousChineseAreas:SingaporeTheimportanceofdisciplineinearlychildhood:“Thechildshouldobeyandnotbeallowedtotalkback.”Inordertodisciplineachildeffectively,manyparentsadmittohavesometimesthreatenedthechild,suchasreportingthemtoateacherorapoliceman.TheydependlessonphysicalpunishmentthandoparentsontheMainland,theyprofesstonotentirelydismissingcorporalpunishmentincreatingafilialson.Achildmustshowrespectforadults,andelderlyinparticular.Notpropertoshowintimacyinfrontoftheirchildren.29HowAboutHongKong?Mixture/FusionofbothChineseandWesterninfluencesOver97%areethnicChinese2writtenand3spokenlanguagesWhatdoyouthink–Chineseidentity,parentalcontrol,independence????30I.2ContemporaryChineseSocialization:SummaryAllChineseparentssharecertainbasicvaluesandpractices.Theypayattentiontotrainchildrentodevelopamoralcharacter,suchasrespectingelders,cooperatingandmaintainingharmonioussocialrelations.Theyhelpandpushchildrentoachieveinschool,andexpectsadultstosetexamplesforchildrentoemulate.Youngparentsmaynotbeharshdisciplinarians,buttheystillexpectchildrentoobey,toactonparents’command.31II.EmotionamongtheChineseArthurKleinman(Harvardanthropologist,1986paper):Chinesetendtobelieveemotiontobedangerous,valuemoderation中庸inallmatters,andemphasizesocialharmonyoverindividualexpression.i.e.,emotionalbehaviorisnormativelymoderateorsuppressed.IntraditionalChinesemedicine,extremeemotionsarethoughttocause/closelyrelatedtophysicalillness(e.g.depression/worries&illnessinliver憂傷&肝鬱結)32II.1EmotionalBehaviorinaSocialContextPotter(1988paper)providesadifferentanalysis:EmotionsarelessrelevantinChinathantheyareintheWest.Emotionsarebestignoredlikeminorachesandpains.Theydonotachievesocialendsandarenotneededtolegitimatesocialrelationships.Harmfulemotionscanthereforebediscouraged;othersemotionscanbeexpressedbutignored.33II.1EmotionalBehaviorinaSocialContextAccordingtoPotter’sresearch,villagersinhisresearchdidnotexpectemotionalexpressivenesstohelpinachievinganend.(e.g.angerwouldnothelprepealanunpopularpolicy/makeatravelpermitavailable).E.g.Theopenexpressionofsorrowdidnotelicitpublicsympathy.Expressionofsorrowdidnotelicitanyvaluedresponse,andsharingofemotionwasnotasignofintimacybetweenindividuals.34II.2(Romantic)LoveinTraditionalChineseCommunityPotter:InChina,socialorder/relationshipsandbehavior

donotrequireanemotionalbasis.IntheWest,loveisthoughttobetheproperbasisofrelationshipbetweenhusbandandwifeandbetweenfatherandson.InPotter’sChinesevillage,romanticlovewasnotrequiredforasuccessfulmarriageorfilialpiety.Marriageswerearrangedbetweenpersonsfromdifferentvillages.Lovebetweentwopersonsinthesamevillagebringsharm.35II.2(Romantic)LoveinTraditionalChineseCommunityAfatherwhoexpressedaffectionforasonwasthoughttoinviteabreakdownofproperrespect.Love,ratherthanaffirmingthesocialstructure,wasseentoendangerit.“RomanticloveisculturallyalieninMainlandChina…marriagechoiceisideallybasedon‘goodfeelings.’”Apersonwithgoodfeelingstowardanotheriswillingtoworkandsacrificeonbehalfofthatperson.i.e.unconditionalresponsibilityandaltrusimLove:oi-ching愛情,anewterminChinese36II.2(Romantic)LoveinTraditionalChineseCommunityHowever,Jankowiak(1993paper):inhisstudyofHohhot,thecapitaloftheinnerMongolianAutonomousRegion.Romanticloveasthethemeoffilmsandmagazines.Youngpeopledateandfallinlove.Jankowiak:“RomanticloveexistedwellbeforethefoundingoftheHandynasty,insomecases,actuallythrivedinthefaceofpowerfulparentalopposition.”37II.2(Romantic)LoveinTraditionalChineseCommunityTraditionalmarriage:arranged,withoutpassionatelove;butemphasisobligation&dutyYet,asearlyasinShijing詩經ofZhou因Dyansty,thereisromanticlove.Alsoinalotoftraditionalinpoetry/fiction/drama…Veryoften,thereislovebetweenaman&aprostitute/aconcubinewhenthemancanmakehisownchoiceofhislover.38III.TheRoleofBeliefinChineseCultureIntheorizingaboutthestructureofvalues,onehastomeet3universalrequirementsofsocialexistence:NeedsofindividualNeedsforcoordinatedsocialinteractionNeedsforthesurvivalandwell-beingofthegroupThisfunctionalframeworkshouldbeapplicabletobeliefs:PsychologicalbeliefsSocialbeliefsEnvironmentalbeliefs39III.1.1AReviewofTraditionalChinesePsychologicalBeliefsPsychologicalbeliefs:AcentralassumptionofConfucianism:peopleareessentialbenevolent(ren).

i.e.,

Confucianemphasiseducationregardlessofsocialclassreflectthebeliefthatallindividualshavethepotentialtobedeveloped.TheemphasisoneffortineducationalsettingsisrelatedtothisConfucianbeliefofperfectibility.40III.1.2AReviewofTraditionalChineseSocialBeliefsSocialbeliefs:individualsarebelievedtohavetoabilitytodeveloptheirmoralstandardsandtoabidebythem.Thisbeliefinindividualmorality(beingren)isoftenusedtoexplainthelackofanobjectiveconsistentlegalsystemintraditionalChinesesocieties.Chinesedonot,asWesterners,regardtheexistenceofexplicitrulesasbeingimportanttosocialorder.41III.1.2AReviewofTraditionalChineseSocialBeliefsChineseseemtofavorfewerrulesandahigherlevelofflexibilityinfollowingwhatrulesaresetout.Chinesebelievethattheycanevaluatetheirownbehavioragainsttheirowninternalmoralstandards.Itisnaturalforthemtodiminishtheimportanceofexternalregulationbyrules.42III.1.3AReviewofTraditionalChineseEnvironmentalBeliefsEnvironmentalbeliefs:FengshuiisasupernaturalbeliefsharedbytraditionalandmodernChinese.FungShui:thepositionsofbuildingandfurniturerelativetoeachotherandinrelationtothephysicalenvironmentcaninfluencetheeventsthatoccurinthebuilding.Toavoidbadluckandtoincreasegoodluck,thepositioningofabuildingandfurnitureshouldbearrangedinawaythattakesintoaccounttheneighboringenvironment.Peopleoftenemployafungshuiexpertforadvice.43III.2.ContemporaryPsychologicalBeliefsII.2.1LocusofControl控制方向III.2.2Externality&theNatureoftheOutcome外在因素與結果III.2.3EffortandAbilityAttributionsinAcademicSituation學術上努力與能力III.2.4BeliefsaboutSelf-Concept自我形象44III.2.1LocusofControlLocusofcontrol:internal/externalInternalcontrol內在控制:thebeliefthatreinforcementsareunderthecontroloftheindividual.E.g.diligentExternalcontrol外在控制:reinforcementsareunderthecontrolofexternalforces,e.g.fate,luck,chanceItiswidelyagreedinliteraturethatbecauseofthecollectivisticorientation,Chinesetendtopossessastrongerbeliefinexternalcontrol(fate,deterministic)thanWesterners.45III.2.1LocusofControl–disagreementinresearchTsui(1978paper):HKChineseundergraduatesweremoreinternalthanwereAmerican-bornChineseundergraduatesintheUS.Hung(1974paper):undergraduatesinTaiwandidnotdifferfromtheAmericansininternality.Smith,Trompenaars,&Dugan(1993paper):ChinesearenotnecessarilymoreexternalthanareallWesterners.46III.2.2Externality&theNatureoftheOutcomeHumility恥,whichoriginatesfromConfucianism,isanorminChineseculture.ChineseemployeesinTaiwanevaluatedtheirperformancelesspositivethandidtheirsupervisors,apatternoppositetothatcommonlyobservedintheUS.47III.1.2Externality&theNatureoftheOutcomeThehumilitynormisrelatedtotheattributionalpatternoftheChinese,whotendtomakeexternalattributionsforsuccesses(others’jointeffort)andinternalattributionsforfailures(blamingoneself).HKChinesesubjectsmadeself-effacingattributionsfortheirperformanceinpublicbutself-enhancingattributionsinprivate.ThesalienceofthehumilitynorminChinesesocietiessuggeststhatChinesepeopleselectmoreinternalexplanationsforfailuresthanforsuccess,theUStheopposite.48III.1.2Externality&theNatureoftheOutcomeTheinternalityofChineseisqualifiedbythenatureoftheoutcome.ChineseweremoreexternalforsuccessfuleventsthanweretheUS.49III.2.3EffortandAbilityAttributionsinAcademicSituationComparedwithAmericans,Chinesebelievethatacademicachievementsismorestronglyrelatedtoeffort.ChineseparentsofprimarystudentsinTaiwanputmorestressontheimportanceofhardwork,andlessontheimportanceofinnateability,thandidAmericanparentsinexplainingtheirchildren’sacademicresults.SuchanemphasisoneffortsisrootedinhumanmalleabilitywhichisadvocatedbyConfucianism.50III.2.4Self-ConceptChineseculture:group-oriented,believingthegroupratherthantheindividualisthebasicunitinsociety.Thecollectiveself集體我wasmoresalientforsubjectsfromChinathanfortheUS.Chineseidentifythemselvesasthememberofaspecificgroup.Yet,ChinesesubjectsfromHKrespondedatalevelsimilartotheUS.So,wasthedifferenceduetoculturalorpolitical&economicdifferences?51III.2.4BeliefsaboutSelf-ConceptChineseselfentailscomponentsthatarenotobservedintheWest.ChineseholdalesspositiveviewoftheselfthandotheUS.Why?Bond(1986):thehumilitynorminChinesesocietiesmayleadtoalesspositiveevaluationoftheself,andthat“intheabsenceoffurtherresearch,onecannotassumethatlowself-esteemintheChinesehasthesameimplicationsforsocialfunctioningasthesamelevelinrespondentsfromsomeothercultures.”52III.2.4BeliefsaboutSelf-ConceptTheideaof“yuan”緣(predestinedinterpersonalaffinity)isendorsedinChinesesocieties.Yuanreferstothebeliefthatinterpersonaloutcomesaredeterminedbyfateorsupernaturalforces.Yuan,asanexternalexplanationforthosewhoenjoyapositiveinterpersonalrelationshipandprotectthefaceofotherswhoenjoylessinterpersonalrelationship.53III.3ContemporarySocialBeliefs

III.3.1CollectivistBeliefsChinese:collectivisticBecausethefuturesofindividualsfromthesamein-groupareinter-relatedandthateachperson’swell-beingdependsupontheresultsofcollectiveeffort.Ifeachpersonfollowsthenormsofthegroupandactsintheinterestofthegroup,thegroupwillbeharmoniousandprosperous.E.g.ChinesesubjectsinHKallocatedalargershareofagrouprewardtoin-groupmembersthandidAmericansubjects.54III.3ContemporarySocialBeliefsIII.3.1CollectivistBeliefsThecollectivenessofChineseleadsthemtobelievethataneffectivewaytogetthingsdoneisoftenthroughone’sguanxi關係(interpersonalconnections).Chinesetendtobelievethatout-groupmembersarelesslikelytobedependableandtrustworthythan