臺灣造船業(yè)的核心能力和競爭策略

1CorecompetenceandcompetitivestrategyoftheTaiwanshipbuildingindustry:aresource-basedapproachInstituteofBusinessandManagement，JUNE2004TheshipbuildingoutputforTaiwanhadbeen4thintheworlduntil1999;however,atthattime,itdroppedtothe9th.Currently,theworldshipbuildingcapacitygreatlyexceedsthedemandandthisdisparitycouldgrowto40%by2005.Facingthisturningpoint,themainobjectiveofthisstudyistore-examinetheinternationalcompetitivepositionofTaiwan’sshipbuildingindustry;further-more,torealizetheindustries’corecompetencesandattempttorecommendcompetitivestrategiesforthefuturedevelopmentofTaiwan’sshipbuildingindustry.TheresultsshowthatTaiwan’smaincorecompetenceisproductionmanagement,mainlythroughheterogeneousresourceanalysis.Thispaperalsoproposesthatforgeneraltypesofships,Taiwan’sdevelopmentpriorityshouldbetoutilizelow-coststrategiestooccupythemarketcontinuously;astohighvalueaddedtypesofships,Taiwan’spriorityshouldbetoutilizedifferentialandfocusstrategies.Finally,thedirectionofgovernmentpolicyissuggested.Introduction留Re朵so絹ur捕ce瘡-b括as宮ed沖v券ie訊w博ha擾s退be襖co孤me屬潔a碗si微gn易i?途ca寇nt雕a違pp搶ro鉛ac電h爸fo怠r娛st管ra著te豆gy慈m塔an督ag恒em漫en位t熊饑th安ro惑ug識h育ma縱ny毫l步it利er凱at的ur瀉e棉di疫sc緊us放si仇on貢s膽si棋nc腫e競We制rn忙er法fe企lt閥h棄ig惠hl域ig違ht嫁ed畝h陷ow跟a把d剛ep王ar孤tm領en狐t戰(zhàn)木us鍬in楚g范un藍iq隱ue齊除an孩d梁粥id覺io借sy膨nc學ra漂ti抹c猴見or圾ga蛇ni序za沈ti來on獸al旁r床es惹ou櫻rc殊es躺旺ca拆n寸su俯st棋ai耳n銜su顫pe結(jié)ri淺or復箭pe保rf吊or馬ma抹nc喬e[工1]半.秘Fi脅rm葉s銀ca是n粉ob啦ta辮in憶a塌dv擔an株ta乏ge蝕s呀by警a繞na瘦l存yz房in片g敲an走d糾re溉-a決ss僚es瓣si蒼ng喊i貸nf桌or呢ma蠢ti必on違轉(zhuǎn)ab鍵ou漆t(yī)謊th防e舟as浮se運ts桑t呈he能y遙al種re佩a堡dy筒c宿on幟tr立ol盤,黨if姓t斃he瀉se鄭a福ss遷et患s刊ca爆n饞be船u炎se著d刮to質(zhì)i滲mp鼠le朝me尖nt浮v策al襖ua終bl夏e擇濫ma乳rk盆et繪s逐tr忙at銜eg貿(mào)ie聰s第an作d培if站s磨im綱il納ar專a殼ss娘et希s搶ar變e婚no抱t僑co歐nt陡ro魯ll束ed說b嚇y搖a樂si仍gn稠i?耐ca叉nt生n孝um皇be燥r射of百朽co雀mp圾et杏it苗or毅s.腰N岸av蘿ar沈ro控s侍ug棉ge緞st迷ed烘t稀ha基t銀a匠re田so屢ur箭ce鵝-暗ba紛se凍d婦vi膚ew摔o躺f霉th翅e齊鐵?r魂m元is乓a步k津ey委f臟or臂t傍he殿歌re導ne獸wa拋l眨of厭s耐tr縮at擾eg紡ic章t娃h吊in魚ki捏ng須i傭n蹦ma掩tu讓re套i沉nd辯us夏tr液ie扣s凳[2丟].很Ba巡rn供ey窗p叼ro阿po運se鵲d刻th賺at帥r米es痰ou風rc址es那么i舊nc想lu世de廉a(chǎn)怕ll再a漠ss乘et磚s,沈c單ap臘ab鈔il條it嫁ie園s,緣o智rg偏an垃iz較at爛io影na跳l甲棵pr枯oc師es權se圍s,折?群rm摸a動tt誓ri晴bu榮te混s,詳i芽nf潔or顏ma供ti仆on次,快kn剖ow搖le正dg麥e,艱e民tc瞎.扒co免nt燥ro燙ll閥ed疼b渴y暢a艱?r恥m渴th苦at框召en機ab權l(xiāng)e餐t茶he序?需rm桑t狗o碑co疤nc秧ei放ve偷o傾f筑an埋d距im葉pl誘em鋼en摩t串st仇ra超te殿gi支es事t慎ha蠟t濕im腿pr浴ov恭e久it作s諒e疼ff慕ci獅en悄cy挺止an疤d互e孤ff駕ec扇ti爭ve伯ne腎ss潑[腳3]擦.價Ho圾we周ve跑r;租t知he悲re耽a扛re孟a脹f除ew氣r闊el貧at掌ed布c鍛on刑ce鍋pt澆s燒in代s病tr竄at舍eg刪y集li愿te元ra斬tu抗re挑萍wh油ic店h為ar添e耕wo日rt攏h安me他nt圾io伏ne鄙d鎖as雀f哈ol甩lo悶ws輔:拉Or吳ga度ni森za貌ti追on友al留c疾ap舅ab遠il廉it乘y鳥Ul臘ri叛ch宵&北L壯ak惕e石pr部op覺os織e出d漆t(yī)h中at象o尸rg轎an毛iz童at錄io屆na柿l皆ca齊pa玩bi純li領ty事i熊s澇th蛇e點ab金il毯it呢y史to限b忍ui鼓ld松?烏rm寄’s墳承in爺te垃rn木al唯s糖tr喬uc注tu杰re今a樸nd怕p咸ro障ce飄ss糊,疑an急d喘th然es槐e膝st哨ru幫ct篇ur混e累an傘d大pr的oc盟es晝s憤ar愿e憑ab西le辛t來o連a劣ff博ec餅t陪丙em集pl援oy寫ee輝s慮to紛c杠re技at蚊e翅or至ga遺ni改za賄ti佛on橫al擴a鍛pp賺ro廣pr母ia趟bl污e匪ca聾pa屋bi床li份ty悉.炎He宗nc下e,替t譽he幣o芬rg梅an渣iz印a魄ti昏on覆倆is元a鑰bl龍e域to繞?券t膝wi誤th燈s瘡tr項at默eg蓄ic三r喉eq航ui萍re來me倍nt買a冬nd秧e脆nv暖ir壁on行me袖nt蔑al展c司ha括ng茶e瓜[4鋤,污5]季.踏Di臂st凡in符ct繳iv效e拒c隨om脂pe熱t(yī)e深nc唉e緒Se無lz底ni帥ck迎p攔ro贈po艷se蕩d罩th似at惰d蹄is虎ti泛nc廟ti酬ve沿c剩om被pe奪te努nc付e護is正t要o盯de殃sc術ri趨be遙t萬he們c器ha見ra臟ct矛er盼o陳f騰an粉紡or怎ga妹ni暮za悄ti花on剛,惑re柳fe扁rs彈t刷o策th奪os喊e海th急in費gs耽t抓ha健t路an縮o勁rg申an倆iz媽at俊io布n鼓do泳es似e李sp咽ec免ia頭ll清y盜we值ll長i柱n禾撞co圈mp收ar嘆is索on壯w恨it睜h燕it鍵s覽c揚om芒pe株ti頓to眾rs浙[飲6]余.特Sn暗ow河&私H暴re狹bi鄭n紡ia槍k易st炭at駝ed氏t礦ha情t威di恨st胃in減ct裁iv背e召co增m伶pe祥te吉nc渠e錘is株t政he饑c抗ap勻ab丘il喘it憤y注th吼at娛o儲rg咐an閱iz海at浩io材n’晝s唇co雹mp川et殺it見or肝s睡do招n味ot澤p圈os箏se胖ss胸[其7]續(xù).璃Co押re朋c葬om碰pe襯te銜nc傷e插Po諒rt見er閃p閘ro洗po篩se乳d錦th煉at某m灰ai絲ns山tr筒ea走m喊st好ra矩te領gy晃r政es著ea扒rc握h匆th宮ro殖ug珠h觸th捐e滅19奮80務s脫an狂d腸th瞧e沿ea膊rl方y(tǒng)虛怪19箱90窄s細br困oa團dl飯y造as抬su師m叼ed嗽t莫ha保t察it勁i付s智po厚ss碗ib叫l(wèi)e訴f矩or尼a匪?釣rm先t代o然ac共hi賣ev撿e烘an產(chǎn)d漏su臟st側(cè)ai槐n殿a與co燙mp浙e宅ti末ti汗ve摘a牽dv鑼an岸ta匆ge召,驚a須un虛iq鍵ue具p原os見it補io丟n剛re豪la你ti庭ve巡t腸o渡co今mp徑et際it爐or觀s繞th潛at振a潛ll澇ow由s吃it槐t疤o妙co夫ns禾is羞t墾en疏tl咳y花ou抽tp腐er敬fo巧rm殘t餐he芽m俱[8窩].吃P茄os散t霞Po江rt貪er燈’s隱i尿de些al汗,記mu陪ch送o傲f呢th候e揚re優(yōu)se錘ar呼ch尚o唉n秤co互mp蠶et探it翅iv稿e蓄拐ad禍va帥n拌ta缺ge躺f聲oc至us線ed決o慰n萬co粱r帶e印co何mp舅et俯en乖ce太a幸s啟a澡ma救jo全r屠so診ur干ce芒o值f珠th遷at琴a觀dv幅an辛ta乖ge繪[同9]燈.服Co撐re詢至co蓮m前pe尼t(yī)e滾nc秧e優(yōu)is關t崗he混c悉ol玉le鞏ct見iv拼e鼠le逮ar嗎ni秧ng生i緣n頂th既e洞or亡ga虜ni累z衫at術io愚n,皮e寄sp昏ec誠ia習ll早y為ho怨w掙to秘c址oo皆rd鼠i瞇na訴te貢d遷iv臂er廚se狼p鄉(xiāng)ro靈du此ct板io慌n伐sk斜il惡ls息a轉(zhuǎn)nd芬i侄nt涉eg劃ra革te夫m庫ul床ti太pl楊e瘡st聯(lián)re按am謀s弦of掘t嘩ec刪hn發(fā)ol準og雪ie熄s紫[1船0,亡1耕1]揉.調(diào)梳A今?r征m’捐s沉c痰or乖e疼co偉mp刮et膨en波ce摸i搖s僚d恭e?味ne瓦d楚as模t萬he洗v馳ec蘭to遷r誓of盯t柴he么i銳rr胞ev姐er駝si西bl而e暴as筑se歇ts毯a駁lo誼ng艱坊wh據(jù)ic貨h肝t退he譜?測rm鑄i灑s帝un鞭iq進ue蛛ly糞a虧dv論an挪ta處ge纖d升an甘d質(zhì)it認i旺s掩as券se踐t咸of貪d鼠i姻ff鼓er擴en銷ti嶺at麥ed啟t啊ec及hn墊ol高og叮ic污al珠棋sk孕il測ls豪,宗co收mp繩le敗me自nt暑ar豆y校as韻se剝ts盟,繞an股d企or簡ga做ni四za攪ti拘on茄al綿r房ou周ti撫ne厚s物an溫d阻ca僵pa櫻ci扎ti怒es稼[汗12胳].肝C峰or剖e頌按co劃mp芒et艦en掀ce筒i冒s篩s臨ki肺ll嶼s亭an鋤d懇ar重ea絲s從o鴉f知kn口ow紫le時dg僑e銅th瘋at具a基re中s羽ha疾re狂d碰ac啊ro荷ss蹲b童us錫in厘es攤s挨un覽it任s卡an捧d能削re爬su呆lt耀f股ro含m憲th眨e呀in進te趙gr糊at乞io生n宣an備d縮ha蹄rm祖on巧iz猴at穗io汗n蔑of牲s逃tr環(huán)at勺eg寒ic崗b于us授in礦es停s鉗un糧it叮c磨om沖pe米te構(gòu)nc萍e[原13搭].確In擱o猛rd義er拔t樸o舅ob闊se撿rv蝶e慶?r糕ms忌i崗n艷a藏wi胡de柴r獅po樓in陜t閣of乳v垂ie促w欠an壞d糖to誓s農(nóng)tu用dy骨i忘n纏a禿mo搏re蝦s毅pe炒ci抬?c企詠ag逢gl咽om嶼er寺at懇e鄉(xiāng)e車ff劇ec梯t,千r贈es妄ou久rc介es途a遠n燃d售co相re計c宅om形pe封te坡nc市es醒a猶re較u涌se豈d唉in賤t從hi幫s撈st勺ud熱y.雖Theshipbuildingindustryisaninternalized,liberalized,andmatureindustry[2,14].Therelatedindustrynetworkisextensiveandcontainsupstreamsuppliersformaterialandequipment,e.g.thesteelandironindustries,machineryindustry,electricalandelectronicindustries,anddownstreamcustomers,e.g.theshippingindustryandnationaldefenseindustry.Inpost-warJapan,aslaterinSouthKorea,shipbuildingwasidenti?edasakey,strategicindustrycapableofpromotingwidereconomicgrowth.Inaddition,JapanandSouthKoreacomprisethe?rstandsecondlargestshipbuildingnationsintheworld.AccordingtostatisticsinLloyd’sRegister,inrecentyears,themainshipbuildingnations:Japan,SouthKorea,China,Germany,Italy,Taiwan,Poland,Spain,Denmark,andCroatiashare90%oftheworld’sshipbuildingoutput.TheshipbuildingoutputforTaiwanhadbeen4thintheworld;however,i動t窄dr培op頸pe匹d珠to廳t醒he潮9繪th恩i淺n梯19侍99脊.燃At宏p取re映se襯nt提,戰(zhàn)th醬er歉e層ar港e瞎98明s乏hi索py鄉(xiāng)ar陪ds破材in笨T釘ai撓wa包n,菌m楊os坑t飽of共t做he濃m匠ar慕e紛sm荷al贏l肆to預m鐵ed皆iu肚m滑si模ze亞d蓬an偏d遺th困e制st印at床e-至ow舉ne乘d掉Ch抓in燕a劣小Sh由ip簽bu升il阿di智ng刊C延or娃po謊ra圓ti怕on堆(靈CS筋BC壓).裙E凈st是ab澤li縣sh救ed攏i讓n織19艱73前,晌CS補BC背i巧s汗th炊e洽on贈ly屆l曉ar召ge極股sh惱ip匯bu視il矛de果r跑to叛b鏈ui獸ld渡a目nd惜r炕ep偵ai驗r澡la逃rg罰e年me渾rc陽ha恩nt伴v顛es睛se稻ls找a遠nd漢n勇av糊al蠟s吊hi照ps惑i顆n球Ta脾iw套an格.顏盒Th纖e綁an撓nu漂al團o筍ut淹pu葉t糖of盞C見SB舍C伴sh攔ar木es外o賽f播th貪e秒to爛ta趣l京sh姿ip控bu屋il燥di隸ng雙o鈔ut六pu宅t歌is咸9貌0%沉;術等th疊er慮ef輛o槳re盾,巖CS拴BC渴p孤la散ys廁a粒s紛ig瓶ni揉?c愁an州t有ro絮le獄i惕n斗Ta扯iw墊an犁’s哪s膊hi品pb抄ui著ld蘭in稈g慨In吼du逐st優(yōu)ry質(zhì).笨旦In時F切eb毒ru唉ar纖y碗19散99燕,懶34談s有hi歲ps屯w悄er璃e未on信o敢rd旦er非,檔to唉ta趴li狂ng車1糕,1壞60亮,0冶00頌g挑r飛os柜s血to逃ns錄a筋t嬌CS慰BC美.7未6%扒o活f踏th鈔e偶or史de晉rs暢w洗er抗e喚ex夜po烏rt里ed惜t胡o帳De延nm名ar飾k,窩G手re哀ek拿,候Sw雹it發(fā)ze連rl余an黨d,假a呼nd星F鄭ra蠻nc尚e,饅美am安on遷g唉ot固he抽rs吐.可Re病ce紀nt療ly淡,基th怕e狀wo苦rl三d殘sh新ip傻bu催il丸di璃ng還c汗ap笛ac塌it圖y娛ha少s秀gr閣ea竿tl劣y袍ex毒ce律ed飾ed雞t膏he爐餃de狼ma蔥nd尚a孤nd壁t荒hi生s中di胖sp悟ar肯it緞y平co許ul愛d寬gr嚼ow被t崗o既40校%肝by鞠2留00危5劇[1碑5]敗.販Th脈er掃ef曠or竟e,箱T買ai濃wa滿n’闖s采寫sh暮ip伯bu陳il盯di傳ng課i筋nd測us喉tr雹y滾co織nf慶ro貞nt胃s灣se抹ri崗ou鉛s釣co絨mp土et補it筑io濾n盆fr亭om愈t鴿he參i炮nt漠er鳥na線ti菌on書al穴m忌ar籌ke葵t.手陜Ta垂iw家an拆i云s寄th釘e肆15鼻th毅l姓ar號ge響st濃t賄ra擁di瀉ng冠n化at甚io填n墨in眾t剃he聲w棟or鮮ld廟.擇Th綢e灶to描ta菌l緞am匆ou缺nt傾o殼f拴im退po熟rt清掀an眠d辦ex圾po賀rt詠t四ra兔de雷i根s素21盼0舅bi聞ll籃io庫n襖US背d改ol投la顧rs秤a頑nn鉤ua巡ll升y,煌o菠f甜wh床ic協(xié)h鐵90裳%蓋de咱pe同nd智s揭on鍛s材ea笑蜻tr僑an魂sp眾or慈t.傻T瓣h際ou苗sa皇nd哲s乒of催s響hi行ps液e霧nt痰er罵a逐nd堂l奉ea里ve封K鹿ee和lu揉ng度a應nd造K分ao僅hs柱iu禮ng北h董ar奉bo易rs務疤an牲nu府a(chǎn)l不ly施.振Th廁er宋ef蝕or三e,降t詢he牌s遵hi蘿pb船ui霸ld先in向g首in躁du泊st骨ry聾p固la專ys早a皇n齊im耀po行rt旬a(chǎn)n沉t唯ro革le判i降n驢as郊si喚st伴in制g問丈na磨ti額on本al忙d靠ef汽en石se慧c貼on益st鵝ru額ct欺io禽n,或p愿ro旨mo鉗ti悟ng桶s丈hi法pp周in鼠g喬de浙ve勺lo厲pm處en浙t,名a鍋nd欣b你oo施st戚in凳g攏必re溉la營te肌d恥in繼du監(jiān)st圓ri旗al珍d膚ev段el我op型me負nt繪.希F皇ac調(diào)in之g須th去e鞏di趁le對mm未a攔of泊T撿ai嶄wa但n’悉s定sh姐ip父bu曾il估di狂ng嫌i丑nd滾us宴tr偷y,百t寒he址m笛ai俘n抄ob震je餐ct棒iv刷e咐of淘t先hi調(diào)s飄st挺ud賤y竟is儉t希o潤?n載d報ou唯t燕th漂e服co餃mp堅et閑it他iv側(cè)e吧po抖si紫ti偶on絨晝of幻嫁Ta裕iw制an善’s蔬s共hi放pb避ui墳ld裁in貿(mào)g字in回du系st境ry譜;舞fu絨rt攪he余rm絞or老e,噴t臥o造re偵al骨iz吐e列th微e鴿co影re通c鼠om欺pe次te監(jiān)nc復es棉a哪nd勵皇at狡te縱mp晉t痰to殘r蒙ec廟om忠me域nd拾c餅om劫pe蔬ti推ti夫ve艘s抱tr康at犧eg座ie炭s湊fo由r叢f只ut借ur列e紗de改ve賄lo下pm沈en秒t怨of鎖T焦ai妙wa端n’訊s冊棋sh倦ip倍bu鋒il欠di嬸ng待i境nd鉤us源tr立y.CompetitivenessanalysisCompetitivenessof?rmsimplicatesthecompetitivecapabilityoftheinternationalmarketthroughasetofglobalizationstrategies[16].However,Porter’sframeworkdoesnotrecommendacommonyardstickofpracticalcomparativeanalysisforcompetitiveness.Inthecommercialcompetitiveworldofshipbuildingameasureofcostperunitoutputindicatesashipyard’seffectiveness[17].Intable1,Japan,SouthKorea,China,WestEurope,andTaiwan’scostspercompensatedgrosstonnage($/CGT)areshown.Table1.Indexofcompetitivefactorsforshipbuilding.NationMan-year/CGTCost$/man-yearCost$/CGTJapan0.0093US$39,716US$369.35SouthKorea0.0166US$26,226US$435.35China0.1157US$7,170US$829.56W.Europe0.02US$37,146US$742.92Taiwan0.0112US$37,682US$422.40Source:‘‘WorldShipbuilding—TheChallengesAhead’’,DrewayShippingConsultantsLimited,1999.JapanisthemostcompetitivenationwithUS$369.35;TaiwanatUS$422.2andSouthKoreaatUS$435.35areinsecondandthirdplaceforcompetitiveness.Birmingham,Hall&Kattanarguedthatperformanceshouldbepresentedsimplyascost$/CGT;however,thisfailstoindicatethequalitativedifferencebetweenshipyardsoperatinginhigh-orlow-wageeconomies[18].Thisissuecanbeaddressedifthemeasureisdisaggregatedintotwocomponents,namely:cost$/man-yearandman-year/CGT.Ascanbeseenin?gure1,thecost$/man-yearisrepresentedonthehorizontalaxis,andtheman-year/CGTisontheverticalaxis.Together,theseconstructanISO-costcurve.Eachpoint(country)ontheISO-costcurvehasthesamecost$/CGT.Regardingthecost$/man-year,Chinawitha?gureofaroundUS$7,170,possessesthemostcompetitiveadvantageofwagelevel.SouthKorea,witha?gureofUS$26,226isthe2ndnation.WestEurope,Japan,andTaiwanareclose,asallarehigh-wagelevelnations.Regardingthestatisticsofman-year/CGT,Japanwith0.0093,hasthehighestproductivity.BothSouthKoreaandTaiwanarequiteclose,andbetterthanWestEurope.TheproductivityofChina,at0.1157,isthelowest.ConcerningtheISO-costcurve,Japanholdsthemostcompetitiveposition,whichimpliesthatJapanhasthepotentialforkeepingtheleadintheshipbuildingmarket.BothSouthKoreaandTaiwanfallinapproximatelythesameISO-costcurve,andhavelittlechoicebuttofocusonmaintainingaqualityleadovertheircompetitors,whilemakingsteepchangeinproductivity,basedontheircorecompetencesasshownin?gure1.Figure1.IndicativeISO-costcompetitivenesscurve.Source:‘‘WorldShipbuilding—TheChallengesAhead’’,DrewayShippingConsultantsLimited,1999.IndustryresourcesbasedBarneyproposesthatavarietyofauthorshavegeneratedlistsofattributesthatmayenable?rmstoconceiveofandimplementvalue-creatingstrategies[3].Barneyalsoproposesthat?rmresourcescanbeclassi?edintothreecategories:physicalcapitalresources,humancapitalresources,andorganizationalcapitalresources.Chatterjee&Wernerfeldrecommendedthat?rmresourcesbeclassi?edintothreecategories:physicalresources,intangibleassets,and?nancialresources[19].Fernandez,Montes&Vazquezproposethatintangibleresourcescanbeclassi?edashumancapital,organizationalcapital,relationalcapital,andtechnologicalcapital[20].Thisstudysynthesizesthesediscussionsandrecommendsthatresourcesforshipbuilding?rmscanbeclassi?edintofourcategories:tangibleassets,intangibleassets,managementcapabilities,andtechnologycapabilities;andanalyzestheresourcesformajorshipbuildingnationsasfollows:TangibleassetsPhysicalassets.Taiwan’sCSBCwasthe6thlargestshipbuilding?rmintheworldfrom1990to1998;oftheothertop10shipyards,sixbelongtoJapan,andthreeareSouthKoreanshipyards;implyingthattheshipbuildingscaleofJapanandSouthKoreaisverylarge.Ontheotherhand,thereareonlyafewnationswith1,000,000DWTofdrydock,e.g.theRESAshipyardsinSpain,Harland&WolffshipyardintheUK,HyundaiHeavyIndustryandDaewooHeavyIndustryinSouthKorea,andCSBCinTaiwan.TaiwanmustutilizeitscompetitiveadvantageofsuchphysicalassetstoacquireVLCC/ULCCandverylargecontainerorders.Verticalintegration.Thetotalcostforbuildingshipscanbedividedintodirectmaterialcost,directlaborcost,andmanufacturingexpense.Thecostofdirectmaterialsshares54%ofthetotalshipbuildingcostasshownintable2.Table2.CoststructureforTaiwan’sshipbuilding(unit%).Item19961997199819992000AverageDirectmaterial51.1353.7055.9956.9453.4554.24Directlabor25.0624.6015.7713.5415.4118.87Manufacturingexpense23.8121.7028.2429.5231.1426.89Total100100100100100100Directmaterialcostisoneofthekeyfactorsinincreasingcompetitivenessforcontractquotesintheworldshipbuildingmarket,andthedirectmaterialcostcompetitiveadvantageconcernstheverticalintegrationdegreeofupstreammaterialsuppliersforshipbuilders.Iftheverticalintegrationdegreeofupstreammaterialsuppliersishigher,themarineequipmentmarketcouldbeself-sufficientandthematerialtransportationcostswillbelowered.TheshipbuildersinJapanandSouthKoreaoperatewithinagroup.Thosegroupsaredividedtoshipbuilding,heavymachinery,andelectronicsdivisions,andcanmanufacturemarineequipmentbythemselves.ThereforetheirmaterialcostsarelowerthanthatofTaiwanbyabout10–15%.Forinstance,forfour1200TEUcontainervessels,boththeAcategory(MainDieselEngine)andBcategory(auxiliarymachinery)parts,whichtake70%ofthecostofdirectmaterials,needtobeimportedduetothefactthatnodomesticsupplieriswillingtomanufacturetheseproductsbecauseoftheeconomicscale.IntangibleassetsShip-ownersfocusonshipbuildingqualityanddeliveryduringcontractquotationnegotiation.CSBCinTaiwanhascarriedoutcompletequalitymanagementformanyyears.Atpresent,CSBChasalreadyacquiredISO-9001certi?cationforqualitymanagementsystemsforshipbuildingbyLloyd’sRegisterofShippingintheUKandISO-9002certi?cationforqualitymanagementsystemsforshiprepairbyDetNorgkeVeritas.Duetothis,76%ofTaiwan’sordersareexportedtoDenmark,Greece,andSwitzerland,amongothers.ThisimpliesthatTaiwan’sshipbuildingqualityisaffirmedbyinternationalsocietyandforeignship-owners.Productqualityisthecompetitiveadvantageforhighmanufacturingcostnations.Generallyspeaking,theshipbuildingqualityofJapanisthebest,andthatofSouthKoreaandTaiwanareequivalent.Forthemostpart,allnationsareabletocontroltheirproductdeliveryinatimelymanner.Detailsofthiswillbediscussedinnextsection.ManagementcapabilityProductionmanagementcapability.Productionmanagementcapabilityforshipbuild-ingcanbeevaluatedbyscheduling,resourceallocation,manpowerleveling,andcostcontrol.Regardingscheduling,Japanrequires11–12months,SouthKorea12–13months,China18–20months[21],andTaiwan11–13monthsfromthetimeacontractissignedtothelaunchingofavessel.ThereasonthatTaiwanpossessesthiscompetitiveadvantageisduetoproduction-orienteddesignandmodularproductionasfollows:Production-orienteddesign.Production-orienteddesignmeansthatthedesigndepartmentcannegotiateeffectivelywiththefactoryduringthedesignstagetocomplywiththerequirementsofthecontractandspeci?cations.Theactionplanofproduction-orienteddesignforCSBCisasfollows:(1)Thecon?rmationofproductionstrategy:Thedesigndepartmentnegotiateswiththefactorythestrategyforexecutingproduction,e.g.thegeneralarrangementandcabinplantobeconsidered,tomaketheworkconvenientforshop.(2)Thecon?rmationofproductionfactors:Intheearlydesignstage,itisnecessarytocon?rmandbecarefulofthefactorsthatcanpromoteproductivity,e.g.workquantity,effciency,redundantwork,auxiliarywork,facility,environment,soastopreventunnecessaryrework.(3)Therecommendationofabasicindexforproduction:Abasicindexforproductionisusedtoevaluateeffciencyduringthebuildingprocess.Theitemsofabasicindexinclude:constructionweight,pipeandcablepiecesandlengths,etc.Theindexisalsousedbytheshoptoarrangetheworktobedone.Modularproductionmethod.Thetraditionalproductionmethodbeginsfromlayingthekeelandinstallationofinternalequipmentandsystem,and?nishout?ttingworkafterthelaunch.Itisnotthemosteffcientmethodduetoanextendeddrydockperiod.CSBCcarriesoutmodularproductioninordertoreduceitscycletime.Modularproductionmeansthattheout?ttingmaterialisinstalledintheblockattheassemblyshop,withtheblockthenbeinghungbycrane,sothatworkersinallareascanworksimultaneously.Forinstance,whenanout?ttingworker,e.g.electricalwork,benchwork,pipingwork,installationofequipmentandsystemsisworkingononeblock,thesmithingandweldingcanbedoneonthenextblock.Otheradvantagesformodularproductionare:(1)Themainsystem,suchasthedieselengine,canbeinstalledintoacompleteblockinsteadofinstallingitonboardthroughanopeninginthedeck.(2)Thecomplicatedpipelineworkcanbeinstalledfromthetop,side,andfront,insteadofinstallingitonboardonlyfromonedirection.(3)Buildingeachblockonthegroundiseasierthanbuildingitinthedock,andhelpsreduceman-hoursandrework,shorteningcycletime,andreducingproductioncosts.Marketingmanagementcapability.Intermsofproduct,Japan’sshipbuildingqualityisthebestintheworld,withSouthKoreaandTaiwan’squalityasreportedbefore.Regardingthecharacteristicsandtypeofproduct,Japan’smainproductsarehighvalue-addedshipandgeneralship;therefore,Japanisthemostcompetitiveintermsofadvantages.Asforprice,SouthKoreahasmaintainedcontrolofpricingduringtherecentexpansionphasesothatpricesremainlow[8],andtheothershipbuildingnationsarethepricefollower.Asforpromotion,JapanandSouthKoreahaveestablished?eldofficesorsendtheirmarketersoverseasextensively,togathercustomerinformationatthesource.Atpresent,Taiwanacquiresordersmainlythroughbrokers,however,establishingasystemtoinvestigatetherelationshipbetweenthebrokerandthecustomerislacking.Besides,estimatingandbiddingisanimportantprocessduringthecontractquotationperiod,whichshouldrepresentthewisdomofaninterdisciplinaryshipbuildingteamconsistingofthedesigndepartment,theproductioncontroldepartment,theaccountingdepartment,andothers[22].Forinstance,previously,thelaborcostestimateforbuildinganewshipatCSBCwassimplycalculatedasafunctionofhullsteelweight.However,theremightbeanenormousdeviationbetweentheactuallaborcostandtheestimatedlaborcostsuchaswiththecontainervesselNo.101builtforaGermanship-owner,inwhichtheactuallaborcostwasabouttwiceasmuchastheestimatedlaborcostandcausedagreatlossinitsconstruction.Inordertosolvethisproblem,Chou&Changusedregressionmethodtodevelopalaborcostestimationmodelfor?vetypesofships,andthismodelcanbeadoptedforestimationandquotationactivitiesinparticular[23].Humanresourcesmanagementcapability.Japanisanadvancedindustrializednationwithacompletelydevelopedengineeringandtechnologicaleducationsystem.TheSouthKoreangovernmentregardsshipbuildingasakeyindustry;therefore,governmentand?rmsemphasizeandfostertalent.ThereisacompleteengineeringandtechnologicaleducationsystemofshipbuildinginTaiwan,e.g.theInstituteandDepartmentofNavalArchitectureatNationalTaiwanUniversity,NationalTaiwanOceanUniversity,andothers.Inaddition,Taiwanshipbuildinghasacquiredprofessionalandabundanthumanresourcesthroughdevelopmentandconstructionofmerchantandnavalships.Particularly,Taiwanshipbuilding’sweldingskillshavewonworldcompetitions.Informationmanagementcapability.Recently,duetotherapiddevelopmentoftheinformationindustry,softwaretrendsgraduallytointegrationandthree-dimensioncomputeraddeddesignapplicationandbecomingaimportantresourceinpromotingproductivityforshipbuilder.Thesevenmajorshipbuilding?rmsinJapanhavedevelopedCAD/CAMbythemselves.Recently,duetosevereshipbuildingcompetition,theJapanesegovernmentintegratedsevenmajorshipbuilding?rmswhohaveleadinthedevelopmentofcomputerintegratedmanufacturing(CIM)overthepast10years(1993–2002)inordertomaintainitsleadingstatusinshipbuilding.AsforSouthKorea,itsgovernmentintegratedresearchinstitutionsandshipbuilderstoputa14-year(1988–2001)CAD/CAMschemeintoactiontopromoteproductivityandtoreducethede?citwithJapan.In1986,CSBCestablishedaCAD/CAMsystemforhullactivity,out?ttingactivity,basicdesign,etc.Inthefuture,itwilldevelopaCIMsystemsoastoachievethetargetofpromotingcompetitiveness.Generalmanagementcapability.Generalspeaking,thetopmanagementofCSBChavethetendencytomanageproblemsfromanengineeringpointofview.Mostofthemlackthecapabilitytoforecastandpredictmarketdynamics.Forinstance,inacquiringordersforPanamaxB/C,themarketpricewas$3600to$2650from1991to1994.However,whenCSBCdecidedtoproducethisproduct,themarketpricedecreasedsharply,makingitimpossibleforCSBCtogetanyordersfortheproductsincetherewouldbenopro?t.Decisionmakingoftopmanagementisalsopoor.Forinstance,in1991,Taiwan’snavywishedtoacquiresixLafayetteclassfrigatesfromCSBCviaatechnologytransferfromFrance.AfterCSBCandTaiwan’snavysignedthedraftagreementforconstruction,CSBCforwardedthecommentstoTaiwan’snavystatingthatthedraftagreementofthepaymentmethodshallbebaseduponcostplussincethecontractwasrevisedbyCSBC’snewgeneralmanager.Owingtotopmanagement’serroneousjudgmentofthesituationandanunreasonablemarginrequestbyCSBC,Taiwan’snavydecidedtoprocuretheLafayetteclassfrigatefromFrancedirectly.Therefore,CSBClostabout$2billioninordersequivalentto2.5timesitsannualbusinessvolume.TechnologycapabilityTechnologycapabilityforTaiwan’sshipbuilderswillbediscussedfromtheaspectofproducttechnologyandprocesstechnology.Japanshipbuildershavegreatstrengthinshipdesign,propulsiontechnologies,andnewmaterials,andtheyareabletodesigneverykindofship.TheresearchanddevelopmentforshipdesigninSouthKoreaisleadbythegovernmentthroughR&Dbyitselfandtechnologytransferfromforeignnations.AsforTaiwan’sshipbuilding,theR&DatCSBCandUnitedShipDesignandtheirdevelopmentcenter(USDDC)totalabout400researchers,andtheformer(CSBC)focusondetaildesignandthelatter(USDDC)focusonbasicdesign.Atpresent,Taiwanshipbuilderspossessdesigncapabilitiesforgeneraltypesofships.Theprocesstechnologyforshipbuildingincludes:materialshandling,accuracycontrol,steelfabrication,assembly,out?tting,blastingandcoating,andtesting[22].Generallyspeaking,Japan’sprocesstechnologyisthesameasitsproducttechnologyastheleadingpositionintheworld.ProcesstechnologyforTaiwanandSouthKoreaareequivalent.CorecompetencesRegardingcompetitivenessforresourcesof?rms,aresource-basedapproachproposesthatfourempiricalindicatorsofthepotentialof?rmresourcestogeneratesustainedcompetitiveadvantages—value,rareness,immutability,andsubstitutability[3,12].IntermsoftheidiosyncraticresourcesforTaiwan’sshipbuilders,CSBCowns1,000,000DWTdrydockwhichpossessesthecompetitiveadvantageofacquiringordersofVLCC/ULCCandverylargecontainers.Ahugeinvestmentisrequiredtobuildthis1,000,000DWTdrydock,andmediumandsmallsizedshipbuilderscannoteasilyrecreateadrydockofthisscale.Ontheotherhand,theproductionmanagementsystemforCSBC,e.g.production-orienteddesignandmodularproduction,isthemainreasonforshipbuildingcycletimessuperiortoChinaandSouthKorea.Itisnecessarytointegratetheoperationsofdesign,materials,andshoptoestablishtheabove-mentionedsystem.Therefore,itisnoteasytochangethetraditionalproductionsystem.Inaddition,shipbuilderskeeptheirestimatingandbiddingsystemscon?dential.Recently,Chou&Changdevelopedalaborcostestimationmodelfor?vetypesofships,e.g.bulkcarriers,tankers,containervessels,multipurposecargoship,andcustomspatrolvessels[23].Sinceconstructingthisestimationmodelrequirestheintegrationofdesigncapabilityandmathematicalcapabilitysimultaneously,itisnoteasytoimitateorsubstitute.Therefore,CSBCpossessesthecompetitiveadvantageofquickandaccuratelaborcostestimationandquotation.Meanwhile,corecompetenciesareskillsandareasofknowledgethataresharedacrossbusinessunitsandresultfromtheintegrationandharmonizationofstrategicbusinessunitcompetences[13].Shipbuildingaccountsfora90%shareofthetotalbusinessvolumeforCSBC,whileshiprepairandmachinerymanufacturesharetheother10%,socorecompetencesforShipbuildingcanberepresentedbyCSBC.Consequently,itshowsthatthecorecompetencesinclude:the1,000,000DWTdrydock,production-orienteddesign,modularproduction,andanestimationmodelforlaborcosts.CompetitivestrategyNavarrohaspresentedacaseofstrategicchangecarriedoutinalargebureaucraticindustrialorganization,theBazanNavalShipyardinSanFernando,Spain,whichchangeditsproductmarketfromwarshipstocommercialvessels,speciallyfastferryshipswhichhadfundamentalsimilaritieswiththefastwarshipspreviouslymadebyBa