英語語言學導論

PAGEPAGE4CourseName:IntroductiontoLinguisticsSept.2012,forGrade2010Classes1-6EnglishUndergraduateProgramDepartmentofEnglishSchoolofForeignLanguageStudiesNanchangCourseInstructor:Prof./Dr.JIANGSyllabusCourseDescription:ThiscourseaimsatprovidingundergraduatejuniorsofEnglishmajorwithafundamentalandsystematicaccountofthebasicknowledgeofthestudiesoflinguisticsatthemoderntimewithexplanations,illustrations,andnecessaryexamplesfromthecoursebookandalsofrompresentEnglishandChineselanguageuses,tohelpdevelopthestudents’interestinthisstudy,tofacilitatetheirunderstandingofthelinguistictermsandtheories,andtobuildasystematicknowledgeofthesaidstudy.MajorBooksUsedforthisCourse:1)Hu,Zhuanglin2006.Linguistics.ACourseBook(ThirdEdition).BeijingUniversityPress,usedasstudents’coursebook.2)Robins,R.H.1967/1997.AShortHistoryofLinguistics(4thedn).London,4)Yule,George.2000.TheStudyofLanguage.Beijing:ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPress.5)KeithBrownetal.(eds.)2006.EncyclopediaofLanguageandLinguistics(2ndedn),Oxford:Elsevier.6)Collinge,N.E.(ed.)2005.AnEncyclopaediaofLanguage.London,7)Strazny,Philipp(ed.)2005.AnEncyclopediaofLinguistics.NewYork,Oxon:FitzroyDearborn.8)Wikipedia./9)EncyclopaediaBritannica.2007.theelectroniceditioncanbeaccessibleontheinternet. CourseRequirements:Attentivelistening,activeparticipation,quicknote-takingandunderstanding,nicepresentationinclassandalltherelatedactivitiesCompletepreview,in-classandafter-classassignmentsPassthefinalexaminationCourseSchedule: GeneralIntroductionChapter1—Designfeatures,origin,andfunctionsoflanguageChapter1—Mainbranches,macro-linguistics,andimportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsChapter2—PhoneticstudiesChapter2—PhonologicalstudiesChapter3—WordandFormationChapter3—Word/lexicalchangesChapter4—Syntacticrelation,construction,andfunctionChapter4—Grammaticalcategories,phrasingandbeyondChapter5—MeaningandsenserelationChapter5—MeaninganalysesChapter8—Pragmatics(1)Chapter8—Pragmatics(2)--Post-GriceandevelopmentsChapter11—LinguisticsandforeignlanguageteachingSummaryLecture1GeneralIntroduction:ModernLinguisticsandEarlierLinguisticStudiesInthislecture,weshallmakeageneralintroductiontothedevelopmentofmodernlinguisticsandthelinguisticstudiesbeforethat.Thestudentswillgetageneralview/pictureofthedevelopments,themainlinguisticschools,andtheirstudiesthroughattendingthislecture.Leadingin:Whatdoesyourminddomostofthetime?Orwhatdoyoudomostofthetimeinyourlifeincludingthedreamingtimewhenyousleep?Whatisyourmajor?WhatisEnglish?Languageiswhatyouusemostofthetimeinyourlifeandisalsoyourmajor.Sinceyouarelanguagemajors,verylikelyyouwilluseitforyourfuturework.Whynotlearnaboutitthen?Whatislanguage?Whatdoesitcover?…Thesearethequestionsforlinguistics.ThebeginningofMODERNlinguistics:1916—b.Transformational-GenerativeGrammar.5)LondonSchool倫敦學派Leadingfigures:a.Malinowsky馬林諾夫斯基(1884-1942)—anthropologist;b.Firth弗斯(1890-1960)the1stprofessorofGeneralLinguisticsinGreatBritain;c.M.A.K.Halliday韓禮德(1925--)Systemic-FunctionalGrammar;Influentialfromthe1980s;Functionalapproachandanthropological;Majorfocus—meaninginsocietyandfunctionalgrammar;Contribution—functionalanalysis6)CognitiveLinguistics:anewperspectiveonhowlanguageisused;howweviewtheworldandexpressitinlanguage;howlanguagetellsdifferentcognitionofthesameworldinwhichhumanbeingslive.Leadingfigures:R.Langacker蘭蓋克;G.Lakoff拉可夫;M.A.K.Halliday(partly);N.Chomsky(partly)7)ComputationalLinguistics:abranchoflinguisticsabouthowtoteachcomputertoreceive,comprehend,produceandtranslatenaturallanguages.Itreflectshumanambition.4.Homework:1)Gooverthequestionsdiscussed.2)Preview1.1--1.5ofChapter1.3)Whatislanguagedefinedbydifferentpeople?Whatislinguistics?Howdoesasoundcometohavemeaning?Lecture2DesignFeatures,OriginandFunctionsofLanguageInthissection,weshallmainlydiscusssomeimportantfeaturesandfunctionsoflanguage.Aswidelydiscussed,therearefourfeaturesandsevenmainfunctions.(Q9.Whatislinguistics?p14.Whatislanguage?p3.)Checkstudents’homeworkorallyinclass;askthemtogivesomepresentation;offerthemsomedifferentdefinitions(cf.EssentialsofLinguisticspp.1&14);underlinethekeywordsinthedefinitions;explainthemonebyonewithexamplesfromEnglishandChinesetofacilitatetheirunderstandingandmemorizing.1)“Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Itisasystemsincelinguisticelementsarearrangedsystematicallyratherthanrandomly.Itisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenawordandtheobjectitrefersto.Itissymbolicbecausewordsareassociatedwithobjects,actions,ideas,etc.byconvention.Itisvocalbecausesoundorspeechistheprimarymediumforahumanlanguage.Itishumaninthatnootheranimalspossesssuchlanguage.”2)“Modernlinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiestherulesandprincipleswhereuponhumanlanguagesareconstructedandoperatedassystemsofcommunication.”(Q10.Whatisadesignfeatureoflanguage?)(Q11.Howmanydesignfeaturesarethereandwhatarethey?)4DesignfeaturesoflanguageThefeaturesthatdefinehumanlanguagesarecalleddesignfeatures.(p3)(Q12.Whatisarbitrariness?)Arbitrariness任意性Thereisnonaturalrelationshipbetweenmeaningandform,aswellasmeaningandsoundofalanguage.Eg1.fish(inEnglish)lepoisson(inFrench)魚(inChinese)*Theabovewordsandsoundsallmeanthesameandallrefertothesamekindofanimallivinginwater,yettheytakedifferentforms.Eg2.eat(inEnglish)manger(inFrench)吃(inChinese)(Q13.Whatisduality?)Duality雙重性Wordisacombinationofsoundandmeaning.Languagehasalevelofsounds/asoundsystemandalevelofmeaning/meaningsystem.Or:languagehastwosystems—soundsystemandmeaningsystem.(Q14.Whatiscreativity?)Creativity創(chuàng)造性(productivity能產性inotherlinguisticbooks)Wecancreatenewwords;Wecancreateendlessnewsentenceswithlimitednumberofwords.(Q15.Whatisdisplacement?)Displacement不受時空限制性Onecanrefertosomeone/sth.inthepast,atthepresentorinthefuture;Onecanrefertosomeone/sthinanotherplaceorinanotherworld,realorimagined.(Q16.Whatisconvention?)*Convention約定俗成isacommunity’sorsociety’sacceptance,use,andcarryingonofacertainsoundorformforameaning.2.OriginofLanguage(Q17.Howdidlanguagepossiblybegin?)1)Languageistheverythingthatmakesushuman.2)WilliamC.Stokoe’sinterpretationoflanguageorigin:languagemayhavebegunwithgesturalexpressions.Instrumentalmanualactionsmayhavebeentransformedintosymbolicgestures,andvisionwouldhavebeenthekeyoflanguageevolution.(Q18.Whatisthepossiblerelationshipbetweenlanguageandgesture?)3)Therelationshipbetweenlanguageandgesture—whetheritisoneofunityorduality.Shouldweconsidergestureandlanguageasdifferentandindependentphenomena?Aunityforlanguageandgestureisamorereasonableunderstanding(AdamKendon,inMcNeill2000).*Ourknowledgeandunderstandingofthenatureoflanguageandotherrelatedtypesofcommunicationislimitedandcallsforceaselessexploratoryendeavor.(Q19.Howmanyfunctionsarethereofhumanlanguage?Whatarethey?)(Q20.Whatisinformativefunction?)3.7Functionsoflanguage1)Informativefunction:信息功能(alsounderstoodasideationalfunction)Languageisusedtonotedown,tocarry,andtopassinformation.(Q21.Whatisinterpersonalfunction?)2)Interpersonalfunction:人際功能Languageisusedforhumancommunication/forcommunicationamongpeople.Itisusedtoestablishandmaintainpeople’sstatusinsociety/orestablishandmaintainsocialrules.(Q22.Whatisperformativefunction?)3)Performativefunction:行事功能Wecanuselanguage/wordstodothings.a.Wecanuseittomakeothersdosomething;b.Wedosomethingourselvesatthetimewhenwearesayingsomething.(Q23.Whatisemotivefunction?)4)Emotivefunction:情感功能(expressivefunctioninotherbooks)Languagecanbeusedtoexpressfeelingsoremotions.Egs.“MyGod.”“Alas!”“Ouch!”“Damnit!”“Wow.”(Q24.Whatisphaticfunction?)Phatic[\feitik]function:酬應功能Languagecanbeusedtoindicateortomaintainrelationship.ThisfunctionoriginatedfromMalinowski’sstudyofthefunctionsoflanguage.Egs.“Goodmorning.”“Godblessyou.”“I’msorrytohearit.”“Goodday.”“Hello!”“Good-bye.”(Q25.Whatisrecreationalfunction?)Recreationalfunction:娛樂功能Languagecanbeusedforjoy,fun,amusement,orrecreation.Egs.Jokes,Chinesecrosstalk,songsandlyrics,poetryingeneral(Q26.Whatismetalingualfunction?)Metalingualfunction:元語言功能Languagecanbeusedtotalkaboutitself.Eg.“book”isawordthatweusetorefertosomethingthatweread…*Whatteachersdoinclassismainlytheuseoflanguageofthisfunction--touselanguagetoexplainlanguage.4.Homework:1)Gooverthequestionsdiscussed.2)Previewsections1.7--1.9ofChapter1.Writeaboutdifferencesandsimilaritiesbetweenphoneticsandphonology,morphologyandsyntax,semanticsandpragmatics,andhandinthishomeworknexttime.Lecture3MainBranches,InterdisciplinaryBranchesandImportantDistinctionsCollecthomeworkAnoralcheckofthequestionsdiscussedlasttime.(Q27.Howmanymainbranchesoflinguisticsarethere?Whatarethey?)(Q28.Whatisphonetics?)6MainbranchesoflinguisticsPhonetics:語音學Thestudyofspeechsounds.Itstudiesanddescribesanyspeechsoundwhetheritdistinguishesmeaningornot.Eg.three“p”soundsarenotedin“speak”(un-aspirated不送氣,as[p=]),“peak”(aspirated送氣,asindicatedbythediacritichin[ph]),and“deep”(theneutralone[p]).(Q29.Whatisphonology?)Phonology:音位學/音系學Thestudyofthesoundsystemoflanguage--oftheminimal/smallestmeaningfulsounds.--oftheminimalsoundsthatdistinguishmeaning.Eg.thethree“p”sin1)abovedon’tdistinguishmeaning.Theyareofonemeaningfulphoneme.*Yet,in“tip”and“sip”,or“tip”“dip”thechangeof“t”to“s”or“t”to“d”bringsaboutanotherword.Therefore,“t”and“s”aretwoindependentphonemes.(Q30.Whatismorphology?)Morphology:形態(tài)學Thestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsoroftheformationofwords.Prefix,suffix,rootallhelptoformwords.Eg.ab|norm|alfriend|lyglob|al|iz|ationdialogue,monologue,onomatopoeicinternationalism,localization(Q31.Whatissyntax?)Syntax:句法學Thestudyofthestructure/formationofsentence.Eg.IspeakFrench.traditionalanalysis:Chomsky’sanalysis:SPrOSNPVPVNP(Q32.Whatissemantics?)Semantics:語義學Thestudyofmeaning.meaningofwordsandtheirrelations;meaningofsentences/or:sentencemeaning.Eg1.flower(asuper-ordinateword)roselilytulipdaffodil(hyperboles)Eg2.buy/purchase;begin/commenceEg3.in/out;give/take(Q33.Whatispragmatics?)Pragmatics:語用學Thestudyofmeaningincontext,ormeaninginuse.Howcanpeopleunderstandthefollowingutterancescorrectly?Pragmaticstriestoexplainhowandwhypeoplegettheinference/impliedmeaningofutterancesotherthanthesuperficial/literalmeaningexpressedbythewords.Eg1.A:Howdoyouthinkofmynewdress?B:Theoneyouworelastweekisreallybeautiful.2.A:Shallwegotothecinema?B:Ihavetocompletethehomework.3.Butterfliesinone’sstomach.4.Appleinone’seye.5.Johnisalion.QueenVictoriawasmadeofiron.(Q34.Whatismacrolinguisticsorinterdisciplinarylinguistics?)Macrolinguistics宏觀語言學Itistheinterdisciplinary(跨學科/跨專業(yè))studiesoflinguistics,thestudyoflanguageinvolvingotherfields.(Q35.Whatispsycholinguistics?)Psycholinguistics心理語言學:itisthestudyoftheinterrelationbetweenlanguageandmind(語言與心智),abouthowlanguageisproduced,understood,andacquired/learned.(Q36.Whatissociolinguistics?)Sociolinguistics社會語言學:itisthestudyofthecharacteristicsoflanguagevarieties,languagefunctionsandlanguagespeakerswithinaspeechcommunity/society.(Q37.Whatisanthropologicallinguistics?)Anthropologicallinguistics人類語言學:itisthestudyoftheunwrittenlanguage,theemergenceoflanguageandthedivergenceoflanguagesoverthousandsofyearsthroughhumandevelopment.(Q38.Whatiscomputationallinguistics?)Computationallinguistics計算（機）語言學:itstudiestheuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehumanlanguage,includingmachinetranslation,computer-aidedteaching,corpus(語料庫),informationretrieval(信息提取),andartificialintelligence,etc.4Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics(Q39.Whatisthedistinctionbetweendescriptiveandprescriptive?)Descriptivevs.prescriptivestudy:描寫性/規(guī)定性Theformerdescribeshowthingsare;thelatterprescribeshowthingsoughttobe.*The18thcenturygrammarbooksaremainlyprescriptiveandthemodernonesaremainlydescriptive.(Q40.Whatisthedistinctionbetweensynchronicanddiachronic?)Synchronicvs.diachronic:共時性/歷時性Theformerdescribesphenomenonoflanguageofacertain/singleperiod;thelatterdescribeslanguagebyanalyzingitsdevelopmentthroughdifferentperiodoftime.Egs:1)thestudyofthedevelopmentoftheChinese“ba-construction”;2)thedevelopmentofthesound“阿”from“[e]”to“[a]”;3)meaningchangesofwords(“小姐”,“老板”,“girl”,“bird”etc).(Q41.Whatisthedistinctionbetweenlangueandparole?)Langue&parole:語言/言語Theformerreferstotheabstractinnatesystemoflanguage;thelatter—theoutcome(wordsandsentences)orwhatweactuallyutter/write.(Q42.Whatisthedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?)Competence&performance:語言能力/語言使用（或語言行為）Theformerreferstoone’sknowledgeorabilityofalanguage;thelattertheuseofit.[*Thedifferencebetweenpairs3)and4)above:Langue&paroleareapairofnotionsdistinguishingrulesandproductionbypeoplefollowingtheruleswhilecompetence&performanceareapairofnotionsfocusingonlanguageuser’spowerandtheperformingofit.]Homework:1)Gooverthequestionsdiscussed.2)Preview2.1&2.23)Whatis“fanqie”反切?Howtouseit?Whatis注音字母？Howdiditoccur?Howtouseit?Whenandhowdid“pinyin”拼音begin?Andthesignificanceofitsoccurrence?Lecture4PhoneticsInthissection,weshallstartanewchapter—discussingspeechsounds.Thestudentswilllearnabout1）themainareasofthestudy；2）thespeechorgans；3）themannersandplacesofsoundproduction;and4）thedescriptionofconsonantsandvowelsofEnglish.Checkstudents’homeworkinclass(Q43.Whatarethethreebranchesofphonetics?)Threemainareasofphonetics1)ArticulatoryPhonetics發(fā)聲語音學--thestudyofsoundproduction2)AcousticPhonetics聲學語音學--thestudyofphysicalpropertiesofsounds3)AuditoryPhonetics聽覺語音學--thestudyofhowsoundsareperceivedandunderstood(Q44.Whatorgansdoweuseinproducingspeechsounds?)2.Vocalorgansandsoundnotation1)Speechorgans/vocal(ofvoice)organsLung,trachea(windpipe),throat,nose,mouthTongue,palate(腭roofofthemouth)pharynx咽,larynx喉vocalfolds(vocalcords)聲帶,vocaltract聲道oralcavity,nasalcavity口腔，鼻腔(Q45.Whatisacoronal,adorsal,aradicalsound?p25.Whatisavoicelesssound,avoicedsound?p27.)*Inphonetics,thetongueisdividedintofiveparts:thetip,theblade,thefront,thebackandtheroot.Inphonology,thesoundmadewiththetipandbladeisreferredtoasacoronalsound,withfrontandbackasadorsalsound,withrootasaradicalsound.*Whenthevocalfoldsareapart,theaircanpassthrougheasilyandthesoundproducedisavoicelesssound.Whenthevocalfoldsareclosetogether,theairstreamcausesthemtovibrateagainsteachothertheresultantsoundisvoiced.(Q46.Whatissound/phoneticnotation/transcription?What’stheprincipleforestablishingtheIPA?)2)Phonetictranscription/soundnotation語音標示/音標Theuseofsetsofsymbolsfortranscribingspeechsoundsortorepresentlanguagesounds.Themainprincipleswerethatthereshouldbeaseparateletterforeachdistinctivesound,andthatthesamesymbolshouldbeusedforthatsoundinanylanguageinwhichitappears.InternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA),developedfirstbyagroupofFrenchlanguageteachersbasedontheirteachingexperiencearound1930s.DanishgrammarianOttoJesperson葉斯柏生(1860-1943)formallyproposeditin1886.Thefirstpublicationwasin1888.Revisedandcorrectedseveraltimesafterwards,widelyusedindictionariesandtextbooks.Theveryrecentversioncameoutin2008.(Q47.Whatisapulmonicsound,anon-pulmonicsound?p29)*Pulmonicsoundsareproducedbypushingairoutofthelung,asinmostcircumstances,whilenon-pulmonicsoundsareproducedbyeithersuckingairintothemouthorclosingtheglottisandmanipulatingtheairbetweentheglottisandaplaceofarticulation.(Q48.Whatarethemannersofarticulation?)3.Mannerandplaceofsoundproduction1)Mannerofarticulation1.stop/plosive塞音/爆破音2.nasal鼻音3.fricative摩擦音4.approximant延續(xù)音/暢音5.lateral邊音6.trill顫音7.tapandflap觸音/閃音eg.better,letter,city,pretty,bottom,button8.affricate塞擦音*FindexamplesforthemfromEnglish.(Q49.Whataretheplacesofarticulation?Giveexamplesforeach.)2)Placeofarticulation:1.Bilabial雙唇[b][p][m][w]2.Labio-dental唇齒[f][v]3.Dental齒[θ][δ]4.Alveolar齒齦[t][d][n][s][z][l][r]5.Postalvelar后齒齦[∫][з][t∫][dз]egs.chew,true,child,tried,choose,truth,joke,drove,jam,drum6.Retroflex卷舌[r]7.Palatal顎[j]8.Velar軟顎[k][g][η]eg.English,ink9.Uvular小舌[r]inFrench10.Pharyngeal咽頭Glottal聲門[?]egs.fat[f??t],pack[p??k],beaten[bi:?n],lantern,button[h]egs.glottalfricative:home,hold,hand,hat4.Englishspeechsounds(Q50.HowtodescribeaconsonantsoundofEnglish?)1)Englishconsonants(24symbolsaccordingtorecentrevision)Themodifiedtable.(cf.thetableonp35ofthecoursebook):MannerofArticulationPlaceofArticulationBilabialLabio-dentalDentalAlveolarPost-alveolarpalatalVelarGlottalStop/plosiveNasalFricativeApproximantLateralAffricatepbm(w)fvθδtdnszrl∫зt∫dзjkgηw(?)h2)Thedescriptionofconsonantsusuallyinvolvestheplaceandthemannerandismadewithasequenceofa)theplaceofarticulation;b)themanner.Eg1.bilabialstop—wherebilabialistheplaceandstopisthemanner.[p][b]Eg2.bilabialnasal[m]Eg3.bilabialapproximant[w]*Notice:whenevertherearetwomembersinthesameboxinthetableabove,athirddistinction–voice--isneededandismentionedinthefirstplace:Eg4.[p]avoicelessbilabialstop[b]avoicedbilabialstopEg5.avoicelesslabial-dentalfricative[f]avoicedlabial-dentalfricative[v]3)Englishvowels(20symbolsaccordingtorecentrevision)frontcentralbackhighi:u:Iumid-highз:?o:mid-lowe?Dlow?α:(Q51.HowtodescribeavowelsoundofEnglish?p37.)4)ThedescriptionofEnglishvowelsismadeintermsof4aspects:(1)theheightofthetongue(high,mid,low)—tongueheight(2)thepositionofthehigherpartofthetongue(front,central,back)—tongueposition(3)thelengthortensenessofthesound(tensevs.lax,orlongvs.short)(4)lip-rounding(roundedvs.un-rounded)Egs.[i:]highfronttenseun-roundedvowel[I]highfrontlaxun-roundedvowel[α:]lowbacktenseun-rounded[?]lowfrontun-rounded[?]midcentralun-rounded4.Homework:1)Gooverthequestionsdiscussed.2)Findhowmanymistakesyoumakeinyourpronunciationofthe44basicsoundsofEnglish.Whataretheyandwhydotheyoccur?3)Handinnexttime:WhatisMandarinChinese?Howmanydialectshasit?Whatisthedifferencebetweenlanguagebranch(語族),language,anddialect?Whatisadialecticislandandthesignificanceofitsexistence?Lecture5Phonologicalanalysis0.Collecthomeworkandchecktheothertwopartsofthehomeworkorallyinclassbyaskingindividualstudents.(Q52.Whatisco-articulation?Whatisanticipatoryco-articulationandperseverativeco-articulation?p38.)1.Co-articulationanddifferenttranscriptions1)Co-articulation協(xié)同發(fā)音Simultaneous/overlappingarticulationbecauseoftheinfluenceoftheneighborsound(s)Eg.“map”where[?]isinfluencedby[m],makingitabitnasalized.“l(fā)amb”where[?]becomesmorelikethefollowingsound[m].*Ifasoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,itisanticipatoryco-articulation.Ifasoundshowstheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound,itisperseverativeco-articulation.(Q53.Whatisnasalization?p38.)*Whenanon-nasalsoundcarriessomefeatureofaneighboringnasalsound,thisphenomenoniscallednasalization.(Q54.Whatisnarrow/broadtranscription?)2)Narrow/broadtranscription:嚴式標音/寬式標音Theformerintendstosymbolizeallthepossiblespeechsoundswhilethelatterindicatesonlythosecapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanother.Egs.1）[p=][ph][p]forvariationsofsoundsin“speak”“peak”“deep”2）[p]forallofthem(Q55.Whatisaphone,aphoneme,andanallophone?)2.Phonology—somebasicconcepts1)Phone,phoneme,andallophonePhone音素—aphoneticunitorsegment.Anysmallestspeechsoundwehearandproduce.Eg.[pit][tip][spit]wecanidentifythreedifferent/p/s;Itiswhat“narrowtranscription”describes;Itmayormaynotdistinguishmeaning.Phoneme音位—aphonologicalunit.Ithasdistinctivevalue;anabstractunitinthesoundsystemthathasnoparticularsound;representedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Eg./p/isrealizeddifferentlyin[pit][tip][spi:k]./?/isrealizedbyanun-nasalized[?]andanasalized[?].Thisisanimportantfactorfordeterminingwhatsoundsshouldbedescribedwhensettingupthesoundsystem.Allophones音位變體—thephonesrepresentingthesamephoneme.Or,thedifferentrealizationsofthesamephoneme.Theyaresoundswhicharephoneticallydifferentbutdonotmakeonewordsophoneticallydifferentastocreateanewoneoranewmeaningthereof.Soundsthatdonotdistinguishmeaning.Eg.thethreedifferent/p/sintheabovesounds.(Q56.Whatisminimalpair?p39.)2)Minimalpairs最小相鄰對Whentwodifferentphoneticformsareidenticalineveryaspectexceptforonesoundsegmentthatoccursinthesameplaceinthestring,thetwoformsaresupposedtoforma“minimalpair”.Eg.[pil][til][kil][bil][dil][gil][sake][fake][dog]Arethesecorrect？[cake][make][dig]?(Q57.Whatiscomplementarydistribution?p41.)(Q58.Whatisvelarization?)(Q59.Whatisfreevariation?)*Whenallophonesneveroccurinthesamecontext,theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.*Whenproducinganon-velarsound,thetongueiscurledalittlebackwardtowardsthevelum,makingthesoundvelarized.Thisprocessisvelarization.*Whendifferencesinsoundarecausedbydialectorpersonalhabitinsteadofbyanydistributionrule.Suchphenomenonisfreevariation.4.Phonologicalprocesses(Q60.Whatisassimilation?Regressiveandprogressiveassimilation?)(Q61.Whatisalienationofsound?)1)Assimilationofsound語音同化—thesoundofonesegmentisassimilatedtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,makingthetwophonesmoresimilar.Or:onesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.Egs.Thenasalizationof[?]beforeandafteranasalstop.sinkEnglishwinklinguist,sign, sing*Ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingone,wecallitregressiveassimilation.Ifaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingone,itisprogressiveassimilation.2)Alienationofsound異化—theoppositechangetoassimilation.Egs.許多xǔ許諾xǔ許久xú許老師xú很熱／很好我們／我想請假／我等你等了好久/我想請你少給我吵鬧。(Q62.Whatarephonologicalchanges?frombottomofp42,43)3)Ruleordering—phonologicalchangesaresystematic.Therearerulestobedescribedofsuchchanges.Phonologicalchangesaresoundchangesinprocessessuchasnasalization,dentalization,velarization,anddevoicing,whereatargetoraffectedsegmentundergoesastructuralandphonologicalchangeincertainenvironmentorcontextwhenconditionedortriggeredbyafollowingsound.[s][z][iz]booksboots/goodsdogstreesboxes,faces[t][d][id]workedbookedissuedfollowedreceivedrecognizedunitedseatedneeded(Q63.Whatisdevoicing?Epenthesis?Whataresibilants?p43,44,46)*Devoicingisaprocessbywhichvoicedsoundsbecomevoiceless.*Epenthesisistheprocessofinsertionofasoundtoasequenceofutterance.*Sibilantsarefricativesandaffricateswhichbehaveinthesamewayinpronunciationwhenfollowedbytheregularpluralform.Homework:1)Gooverthequestionsdiscussed.2)Describetheconditionsforphonologicalchangesin[t][d][id]fortheregularpastform?3)HowmanysymbolsareusedintheIPAnotationsystem?Lecture6(1)PhonologicalStudiesContinued(Q64.Whatisdistinctivefeature?Whatareobstruentsandsonorants?)5.DistinctivefeatureItisthefeaturethatcandistinguishonephonemefromanotherwhenotherfeaturesarealike.Eg.[p][b]+/-voice;otherfeatures—bilabialandstoparethesame[t][d]+/-voice;otherfeatures—alveolarandstoparethesame[m][p]+/-nasal*Obstruentsarestops,fricativesandaffricateswhilesonorantsareallotherconsonantsandvowels.(Q65.Whataresupersegmentalfeatures?)(Q66.Whatisasyllable?Whatdoesafullsyllabicstructurecontain?p50.)6.SupersegmentalfeaturesTheyarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.1)SyllableItisthesoundunitwhichisusuallyformedofavoweloravowelandconsonant(s).Eg.ask[ɑ:sk]

:1syllable*Attentionshouldbepaidtosomespecialsyllables:table[teib