英語語言學(xué)筆記

英語語言學(xué)筆記（完整版）資料(可以直接使用，可編輯優(yōu)秀版資料，歡迎下載）

Linguistics英語語言學(xué)筆記（完整版）資料(可以直接使用，可編輯優(yōu)秀版資料，歡迎下載）Chapter1Introduction:LanguageandLinguisticsWhatislanguage?DifferentdefinitionsoflanguageLanguageisasystemwhosepartscanandmustbeconsideredintheirsynchronicsolidarity.(deSaussure,1916)[Languageis]aset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.(Chomsky,1957)Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.Eachofthedefinitionsabovehaspointedoutsomeaspectsoftheessenceoflanguage,butallofthemhaveleftoutsomething.Wemustseethemulti-facetednatureoflanguage.Asisagreedbylinguistsinbroadterms,languagecanbedefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.FeaturesofhumanlanguageCreativityLanguageprovidesopportunitiesforsendingmessagesthathaveneverbeensentbeforeandforunderstandingbrandnewmessages.Thegrammarrulesandthewordsarefinite,butthesentencesareinfinite.Everyspeakeruseslanguagecreatively.DualityLanguagecontainstwosubsystems,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeanings.Certainsoundsorsequencesofsoundsstandforcertainmeanings.Certainmeaningsareconveyedbycertainspeechsoundsorsequencesofspeechsounds.ArbitrarinessTherelationshipbetweenthetwosubsystemsoflanguageisarbitrary.Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweensoundandmeaning.DisplacementThereisnolimitintimeorspaceforlanguage.Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingsrealorimagined,past,presentorfuture.CulturaltransmissionCulturecannotbegeneticallytransmitted.Instead,itmustbelearned.Languageisawayoftransmittingculture.InterchangeabilityAllmembersofaspeechcommunitycansendandreceivemessages.ReflexivityHumanlanguagescanbeusedtodescribethemselves.Thelanguageusedtotalkaboutlanguageiscalledmeta-language.Whatislinguistics?Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Observing&questioningFormulatinghypothesesVerifyingthehypothesesProposingatheoryBranchesoflinguisticsInternalbranches:intra-disciplinarydivisionsPhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsExternalbranches:inter-disciplinarydivisionsPragmaticsPsycholinguisticsSociolinguisticsAppliedlinguisticsComputationallinguisticsNeurolinguisticsFeaturesoflinguisticsDescriptiveDealingwithspokenlanguageSynchronicChapter2PhoneticsWhatisphonetics?Phoneticsistermedasthestudyofspeechsounds.Sub-branchesofphoneticsArticulatoryphonetics–theproductionofspeechsoundsAcousticphonetics–thephysicalpropertiesofspeechsoundsAuditoryphonetics–theperceptivemechanismofspeechsoundsThespeechorgansWheredoestheairstreamcomefrom?FromthelungWhatisthefunctionofvocalcords?ControllingtheairstreamWhatarethecavities?OralcavityPharyngealcavityNasalcavityTranscriptionofspeechsoundsUnitsofrepresentationSegments(theindividualsounds)PhoneticsymbolsThewidelyusedsymbolsforphonetictranscriptionofspeechsoundsistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).TheIPAattemptstorepresenteachsoundofhumanspeechwithasinglesymbolandthesymbolsareenclosedinbrackets[]todistinguishphonetictranscriptionsfromthespellingsystemofalanguage.Inmoredetailedtranscription(narrowtranscription)asoundmaybetranscribedwithasymboltowhichasmallerisaddedinordertomarkthefinerdistinctions.DescriptionofspeechsoundsDescriptionofEnglishconsonantsGeneralfeature:obstructionCriteriaofconsonantdescriptionPlacesofarticulationMannersofarticulationVoicingofarticulationPlacesofarticulationThisreferstoeachpointatwhichtheairstreamcanbemodifiedtoproduceasound.Bilabial:[p][b][m][w]Labiodental:[f][v]Interdental:[][]Alveolar:[t][d][s][z][l][n][r]Palatal:[][][t][d][j]Velar:[k][g][]Glottal:[h]MannersofarticulationThisreferstohowtheairstreamismodified,whetheritiscompletelyblockedorpartiallyobstructed.Stops:[p][b][t][d][k][g]Fricatives:[s][z][][][f][v][][][h]Affricates:[t][d]Liquids:[l][r]Glides:[w][j]Nasals:[m][n][]VoicingofarticulationThisreferstothevibratingofthevocalcordswhensoundsareproduced.VoicedsoundsVoicelesssoundsDescriptionofEnglishvowelsGeneralfeature:withoutobstructionCriteriaofvoweldescriptionPartofthetonguethatisraisedFrontCentralBackExtenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalateHighMidLowKindofopeningmadeatthelipsPositionofthesoftpalateSinglevowels(monophthongs)anddiphthongsChapter3PhonologyWhatisphonology?Phonologyisthestudyofsoundsystemsandpatterns.Phonologyandphoneticsaretwostudiesdifferentinperspectives,whichareconcernedwiththestudyofspeechsounds.Phonologyfocusesonthreefundamentalquestions.Whatsoundsmakeupthelistofsoundsthatcandistinguishmeaninginaparticularlanguage?Whatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontext?Whatsoundscanappeartogetherinasequenceinaparticularlanguage?PhonemesandallophonesAphonemeisadistinctive,abstractsoundunitwithadistinctivefeature.Thevariantsofaphonemearetermedallophones.Weuseallophonestorealizephonemes.DiscoveringphonemesContrastivedistribution–phonemesIfsoundsappearinthesameenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution.Typicalcontrastivedistributionofsoundsisfoundinminimalpairsandminimalsets.Aminimalpairconsistsoftwowordsthatdifferbyonlyonesoundinthesameposition.Minimalsetsaremorethantwowordsthataredistinguishedbyonesegmentinthesameposition.TheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheconsonantsandvowelsrepresentedbytheEnglishphoneticalphabetareincontrastivedistribution.SomesoundscanhardlybefoundincontrastivedistributioninEnglish.However,thesesoundsaredistinctiveintermsofphoneticfeatures.Therefore,theyareseparatephonemes.Complementarydistribution–allophonesSoundsthatarenotfoundinthesamepositionaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.Ifsegmentsareincomplementarydistributionandshareanumberoffeatures,theyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.FreevariationIfsegmentsappearinthesamepositionbutthemutualsubstitutiondoesnotresultinchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.Distinctiveandnon-distinctivefeaturesFeaturesthatdistinguishmeaningarecalleddistinctivefeatures,andfeaturesdonot,non-distinctivefeatures.Distinctivefeaturesinonelanguagemaybenon-distinctiveinanother.PhonologicalrulesPhonemesareabstractsoundunitsstoredinthemind,whileallophonesaretheactualpronunciationsinspeech.Whatphonemeisrealizedbywhatallophonesinwhatspecificcontextisanothermajorquestioninphonology.Theregularitiesthatwhatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontextaregeneralizedandstatedinphonologyasrules.TherearemanyphonologicalrulesinEnglish.Takethefollowingonesasexamples.[+voiced+consonant]–[-voiced]/[-voiced+consonant]_[-voiced+bilabial+stop]–unaspirated/[-voiced+alveolar+fricative]_SuprasegmentalfeaturesFeaturesthatarefoundoverasegmentorasequenceoftwoormoresegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Thesefeaturesaredistinctivefeatures.StressStressistheperceivedprominenceofoneormoresyllabicelementsoverothersinaword.Stressisarelativenotion.Onlywordsthatarecomposedoftwoormoresyllableshavestress.Ifawordhasthreeormoresyllables,thereisaprimarystressandasecondarystress.Insomelanguageswordstressisfixed,i.e.onacertainsyllable.InEnglish,wordstressisunpredictable.IntonationWhenwespeak,wechangethepitchofourvoicetoexpressideas.Intonationisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishutterancemeaning.Thesamesentenceutteredwithdifferentintonationmayexpressdifferentattitudeofthespeaker.InEnglish,therearethreebasicintonationpatterns:fall,rise,fall-rise.ToneToneisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishwords.Thesamesequenceofsegmentscanbedifferentwordsifutteredwithdifferenttones.Chineseisatypicaltonelanguage.Chapter4MorphologyWhatismorphology?Thetotalnumberofwordsstoredinthebrainiscalledthelexicon.Wordsarethesmallestfreeunitsoflanguagethatunitesoundswithmeaning.Morphologyisdefinedasthestudyoftheinternalstructureandtheformationofwords.MorphemesandallomorphsThesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguageiscalledamorpheme.Amorphememayberepresentedbydifferentforms,calledallomorphs.“zero”formofamorphemeandsuppletivesSomecountablenounsdonotchangeformtoexpressplurality.Similarly,someregularverbsdonotchangeformtoindicatepasttense.Inthesetwocases,thenounorverbcontainstwomorphemes,amongwhichthereisone“zeroform”ofamorpheme.Someverbshaveirregularchangeswhentheyareinpasttense.Inthiscase,theverbsalsohavetwomorphemes.Wordswhicharenotrelatedinformtoindicategrammaticalcontrastwiththeirrootsarecalledsuppletives.FreeandboundmorphemesSomemorphemesconstitutewordsbythemselves.Thesemorphemesarecalledfreemorphemes.Othermorphemesareneverusedindependentlyinspeechandwriting.Theyarealwaysattachedtofreemorphemestoformnewwords.Thesemorphemesarecalledboundmorphemes.Thedistinctionbetweenafreemorphemesandaboundmorphemeiswhetheritcanbeusedindependentlyinspeechorwriting.Freemorphemesaretherootsofwords,whileboundmorphemesaretheaffixes(prefixesandsuffixes).InflexionalandderivationalmorphemesInflexionalmorphemesinmodernEnglishindicatecaseandnumberofnouns,tenseandaspectofverbs,anddegreeofadjectivesandadverbs.Derivationalmorphemesareboundmorphemesaddedtoexistingformstoconstructnewwords.Englishaffixesaredividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.Somelanguageshaveinfixes,boundmorphemeswhichareinsertedintoothermorphemes.Theprocessofputtingaffixestoexistingformstocreatenewwordsiscalledderivation.Wordsthusformedarecalledderivatives.Conclusion:classificationofmorphemesMorphemesFreemorphemesBoundmorphemesInflexionalDerivational:affixesPrefixes:-s,-’s,-er,-est,-ing,-ed,-sSuffixesFormationofnewwordsDerivationDerivationformsawordbyaddinganaffixtoafreemorpheme.Sincederivationcanapplymorethanonce,itispossibletocreateaderivedwordwithanumberofaffixes.Forexample,ifweaddaffixestothewordfriend,wecanformbefriend,friendly,unfriendly,friendliness,unfriendliness,etc.Thisprocessofaddingmorethanoneaffixtoafreemorphemeistermedcomplexderivation.Derivationdoesnotapplyfreelytoanywordofagivencategory.Generallyspeaking,affixescannotbeaddedtomorphemesofadifferentlanguageorigin.Derivationisalsoconstrainedbyphonologicalfactors.SomeEnglishsuffixesalsochangethewordstress.CompoundingCompoundingisanothercommonwaytoformwords.Itisthecombinationoffreemorphemes.ThemajorityofEnglishcompoundsarethecombinationofwordsfromthethreeclasses–nouns,verbsandadjectives–andfallintothethreeclasses.Incompounds,therightmostmorphemedeterminesthepartofspeechoftheword.Themeaningofcompoundsisnotalwaysthesumofmeaningofthecomponents.ConversionConversionistheprocessputtinganexistingwordofoneclassintoanotherclass.Conversionisusuallyfoundinwordscontainingonemorpheme.ClippingClippingisaprocessthatshortensapolysyllabicwordbydeletingoneormoresyllables.ClippedwordsareinitiallyusedinspokenEnglishoninformaloccasions.Someclippedwordshavebecomewidelyaccepted,andareusedeveninformalstyles.Forexample,thewordsbus(omnibus),vet(veterinarian),gym(gymnasium),fridge(refrigerator)andfax(facsimile)arerarelyusedintheircompleteform.BlendingBlendingisaprocessthatcreatesnewwordsbyputtingtogethernon-morphemicpartsofexistingwords.Forexample,smog(smoke+frog),brunch(amealinthemiddleofmorning,replacingbothbreakfastandlunch),motel(motor+hotel).Thereisalsoaninterestingwordinthetextbookforjuniormiddleschoolstudents–“plike”(akindofmachinethatislikebothaplaneandabike).Back-formationBack-formationistheprocessthatcreatesanewwordbydroppingarealorsupposedsuffix.Forexample,thewordteleviseisback-formedfromtelevision.Originally,thewordtelevisionisformedbyputtingtheprefixtele-(far)totherootvision(viewing).Atthesametime,thereisasuffix–sioninEnglishindicatingnouns.Thenpeopleconsiderthe–sioninthewordtelevisionasthatsuffixanddropittoformtheverbtelevise.AcronymsandabbreviationsAcronymsandabbreviationsareformedbyputtingtogethertheinitiallettersofallwordsinaphraseortitle.Acronymscanbereadasawordandareusuallylongerthanabbreviations,whicharereadletterbyletter.Thistypeofwordformationiscommoninnamesoforganizationsandscientificterminology.EponymsEponymsarewordsthatoriginatefrompropernamesofindividualsorplaces.Forexample,thewordsandwichisacommonnounoriginatingfromthefourthEarlofSandwich,whoputhisfoodbetweentwoslicesofbreadsothathecouldeatwhilegambling.CoinageCoinageisaprocessofinventingwordsnotbasedonexistingmorphemes.Thiswayofwordformationisespeciallycommonincaseswhereindustryrequiresawordforanewproduct.Forexample,KodakandCoca-cola.Chapter5SyntaxWhatissyntax?ThetermsyntaxisfromtheancientGreekwordsyntaxis,whichliterallymeans“arrangement”or“settingouttogether”.Traditionally,itreferstothebranchofgrammardealingwiththewaysinwhichwords,withorwithoutappropriateinflexions,arearrangedtoshowconnexionsofmeaningwithinthesentence.Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatanalyzesthestructureofsentences.Whatisasentence?Syntaxistheanalysisofsentencestructure.Asentenceisasequenceofwordsarrangedinacertainorderinaccordancewithgrammaticalrules.Asequencecanbeeitherwell-formedorill-formed.Nativespeakersofalanguageknowintuitivelywhatstringsofwordsaregrammaticalandwhatareungrammatical.SyntacticcategoriesAsyntacticcategoryisaclassofwordsorphrasesthatcansubstituteforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticality.Forexample,considerthefollowingsentences:Thechildfoundtheknife.Apolicemanfoundtheknife.Themanwhojustleftherefoundtheknife.Hefoundtheknife.Alltheitalicizedpartsbelongtothesamesyntacticcategorycallednounphrase(NP).Thenounphrasesinthesesentencesfunctionassubject.Theknife,alsoanounphrase,functionsasobject.StructuralgrammarStructuralgrammararoseoutofanattempttodeviatefromtraditionalgrammar.Itdealswiththeinter-relationshipsofdifferentgrammaticalunits.Intheconcernofstructuralgrammar,wordsarenotjustindependentgrammaticalunits,butareinter-relatedtooneanother.FormclassFormclassisawiderconceptthanpartofspeechintraditionalgrammar.Linguisticunitswhichcanappearinthesameslotaresaidtobeinthesameformclass.Forexample,a(n),the,my,that,every,etc.canbeplacedbeforenounsinEnglishsentences.Thesewordsfallintooneformclass.Theselinguisticunitsareobservedtohavethesamedistribution.Immediateconstituent(IC)analysisStructuralgrammarischaracterizedbyatop-downprocessofanalysis.Asentenceisseenasaconstituentstructure.Allthecomponentsofthesentencesareitsconstituents.Asentencecanbecutintosections.Eachsectionisitsimmediateconstituent.Theneachsectioncanbefurthercutintoconstituents.Thison-goingcuttingistermedimmediateconstituentanalysis.Examples:Oldmenandwomen:old|menandwomen,old||men|andwomenThe|||little||girl|speaks||French.Inthisway,sentencestructureisanalyzednotonlyhorizontallybutalsovertically.Inotherwords,ICanalysiscanaccountforthelinearityandthehierarchyofsentencestructure.Iwillsuggest|thatthis||initselfreflects|||aparticularideology||||aboutgender|||||thatdeservestobere-examined.TwoadvantagesofICanalysis:Itcananalyzesomeambiguities.Itshowslinearityandhierarchyofonesentence.Transformational-generative(TG)grammarBackgroundandthegoalofTGgrammarChomsky(1957)–grammaristheknowledgeofnativespeakers.AdequacyofobservationAdequacyofdescriptionAdequacyofexplanationWritingaTGgrammarmeansworkingouttwosetsofrules–phrasestructurerulesandtransformationrules–whicharefollowedbyspeakersofthelanguage.TGgrammarmustaccountforallandonlygrammaticalsentences.SyntacticcategoriesNounPhrase(NP)VerbPhrase(VP)Sentence(S)Determiner(Det)Adjective(Adj)Pronoun(Pro)Verb(V)AuxiliaryVerb(Aux)PrepositionalPhrase(PP)Adverb(Adv)Phrasestructure(PS)rulesS→NPVP(Det)(Adj)NNP→{ProVP→(Aux)V(NP)(PP)PP→PNPTreediagrams(omit)RecursionandtheinfinitudeoflanguageScontainsNPandVPandthatSmaybeaconstituentofNPandVP.NPandPPcanbemutuallyinclusive.Ifphrasalcategoriesappearonbothsidesofthearrowinphrasestructurerules,therulesarerecursive.Recursiverulescanbeappliedagainandagain,andthephrasestructurecangrowendlessly.Sub-categorizationofthelexicon.Theprocessofputtingwordsofthesamelexicalcategoryintosmallerclassesaccordingtotheirsyntacticcharacteristicsiscalledsub-categorization.Transformationalrules(T-rules)ParticlemovementT-ruleJohnturnedthemachineoff.Johnturnedoffthemachine.ReplacementT-ruleJohnbeatTom.HebeatTom.Thehouseneedsrepairing(toberepaired).InsertionT-ruleAfishisswimminginthepond.Thereisafishswimminginthepond.DeletionT-ruleTheycameinand(they)satdown.CopyingT-ruleHeiscoming,isn’the?Hehasfinishedhishomework,hasn’the?ReflexivizationT-ruleIwashme(myself).TGgrammaraccountsforthementalprocessofourspeaking.Chapter6SemanticsWhatissemantics?Semanticsisdefinedasthestudyofmeaning.However,itisnottheonlylinguisticdisciplinethatstudiesmeaning.Semanticsanswersthequestion“whatdoesthissentencemean”.Inotherwords,itistheanalysisofconventionalmeaningsinwordsandsentencesoutofcontext.ReferenceandsenseLinguisticexpressionsstandinarelationtotheworld.Therearetwoaspectsofmeaning.Referenceistherelationbywhichawordpicksoutoridentifiesanentityintheworld.Butthereferentialtheoryfailstoaccountforcertainkindsoflinguisticexpression.Somewordsaremeaningful,buttheyidentifynoentitiesintherealworld,suchasthewordsdragon,phoenix,unicorn,andmermaid.Itisnotpossibleforsomewordstofindreferentintheworld,suchasthewordsbut,and,of,however,the,etc.SpeakersofEnglishunderstandthemeaningofaroundtrianglealthoughthereisnosuchgraph.Senseistherelationbywhichwordsstandinhumanmind.Itismentalrepresentation,theassociationwithsomethinginthespeaker’sorhearer’smind.Thestudyofmeaningfromtheperspectiveofsenseiscalledtherepresentationalapproach.ClassificationoflexicalmeaningsReferentialmeaning(denotativemeaning)–centralmeaningofwords,stable,universalAssociativemeaning–meaningthathingesonreferentialmeaning,lessstable,moreculture-specificConnotativemeaning–thecommunicativevalueanexpressionhasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,embracesthepropertiesofthereferent,peripheralSocialmeaning(stylisticmeaning)–whatisconveyedaboutthesocialcircumstancesoftheuseofalinguisticexpressionAffectivemeaning–whatiscommunicatedofthefeelingorattitudeofthespeaker/writertowardswhatisreferredtoReflectedmeaning–whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithanothersenseofthesameexpressionTaboosCollocativemeaning–theassociatedmeaningawordacquiresinlinewiththemeaningofwordswhichtendtoco-occurwithitLexicalsenserelationsSynonymySynonymsarewordswhichhavedifferentformsbutsimilarmeanings.Dialectalsynonyms–lift/elevator,flat/apartmentSynonymsofdifferentstyles–gentleman/guySynonymsofdifferentregisters–salt/sodiumchlorideSynonymsdifferinginaffectivemeaning–attract/seduceSynonymsdifferingincollocation–beautiful/handsome,able/capableSynonymsarefrequentlyusedinspeakingandwritingasacohesivedevice.Inordertoavoidrepetitionthewriter/speakerneedstouseasynonymtoreplaceawordinthepreviousco-textwhenhe/shewantstocontinuetoaddressthatidea.Thesynonymstogetherfunctiontocreatecohesionofthetext.AntonymyAntonymsarewordswhichareoppositeinmeaning.Gradableantonyms–pairsofwordsoppositetoeachother,butthepositiveofoneworddoesnotnecessarilyimplythenegativeoftheother.Forexample,thewordshotandcoldareapairofantonyms,butnothotdoesnotnecessarilymeancold,maybewarm,mildorcool.Therefore,thispairofantonymsisapairofgradableantonyms.Complementaryantonyms–wordsoppositetoeachotherandthepositiveofoneimpliesthenegativeoftheother:alive/deadReversal(relational)antonyms–wordsthatdenotethesamerelationorprocessfromoneortheotherdirection:push/pull,up/down,teacher/studentAntonymyisfrequentlyutilizedasarhetoricalresourceinlanguageuse.Oxymoronandantithesisbasedonantonymy.Gradableantonymsmaygiverisetofuzziness.HomonymyHomonymsarewordswhichhavethesameform,butdifferentmeanings.Homographs–wordswhichareidenticalinspelling,butdifferentinmeaningandpronunciation:tear[](v.)/tear[](n.)Homophones–wordswhichareidenticalinpronunciation,butdifferentinspellingandmeaning:see/seaFullhomonyms–wordswhichareidenticalinspellingandpronunciation,butdifferentinmeaning:bear(v.togivebirthtoababy/tostand)/bear(n.akindofanimal)Rhetorically,homonymsareoftenusedaspuns.PolysemyApolysemeisawordwhichhasseveralrelatedsenses.Polysemyisbasedontheintuitionofnativespeakersaswellastheetymologyorhistoryofwords.HyponymyHyponymyisarelationofinclusion.Tiger,lion,elephantanddogarehyponymsofthewordanimal.Wordslikeanimalarecalledsuperordinates.Thiskindofverticalsemanticrelationlinkswordsinahierarchicalwork.ComponentialanalysisComponentialanalysisistheapproachthatanalyzewordmeaningbydecomposingitintoitsatomicfeatures.Itshowsthesemanticfeaturesofaword.Examples:Man:+HUMAN+MALE+ADULTBoy:+HUMAN+MALE–ADULTFather:+HUMAN+MALE+ADULT→PARENTDaughter:+HUMAN–MALE0ADULT←PARENTChapter7PragmaticsWhatispragmatics?Pragmaticscanbedefinedastheanalysisofmeaningincontext.Pragmaticanalysisofmeaningisfirstandforemostconcernedwiththestudyofwhatiscommunicatedbyaspeaker/writerandinterpretedbyalistener/reader.Analysisofintentionalmeaningnecessarilyinvolvestheinterpretationofwhatpeopledothroughlanguageinaparticularcontext.Intendedmeaningmayormaynotbeexplicitlyexpressed.Pragmaticanalysisalsoexploreshowlisteners/readersmakeinferencesaboutwhatiscommunicated.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenthetwolinguisticstudiesofmeaning–semanticsandpragmatics?Semanticsstudiesliteral,structuralorlexicalmeaning,whilepragmaticsstudiesnon-literal,implicit,intendedmeaning,orspeakermeaning.Semanticsiscontextindependent,decontextualized,whilepragmaticsiscontextdependent,contextualized.Semanticsdealswithwhatissaid,whilepragmaticsdealswithwhatisimplicatedorinferred.DeixisandreferenceDeixisisawordoriginallyfromGreek.Itmeanspointingvialanguage.Anexpressionusedbyaspeaker/writertoidentifysomethingiscalleddeicticexpression.Outofcontext,wecannotunderstandsentencescontainingdeicticexpressions,becausewedonotknowwhattheseexpressionsrefertorespectively.Accordingtoreferentialcontent,deixiscanbeputintopersondeixis,placedeixis,timedeixisanddiscoursedeixis.Persondeixis:I,we,you,me,he,etc.Placedeixis:here,there,above,over,this,that…ProximalanddistaltermsProximaltermsareusedwhensomethingisclosetothespeaker,whiledistaltermswhensomethingisawayfromthespeaker.Timedeixis:next…,by…,before…,etc.Tenses:codingtimeDiscoursedeixisAnaphoric:backwardreferenceCataphoric:forwardreferenceThedeicticcentre–ego-centriccentreSpeechactsInlinguisticcommunication,peopledonotmerelyexchangeinformation.Theyactuallydosomethingthroughtalkingorwritinginvariouscircumstances.Actionsperformedviaspeakingarecalledspeechacts.PerformativesentencesImplicitperformatives–It’scoldhere.Explicitperformatives–Pleaseclosethedoor.TypesofspeechactsLocutionaryspeechact–theactionofmakingthesentenceIllocutionaryspeechact–theintentionsPerlocutionaryspeechact–theeffectsOfthesedimensions,themostimportantistheillocutionaryact.Inlinguisticcommunicationpeoplerespondtoanillocutionaryactofanutterance,becauseitisthemeaningintendedbythespeaker.Ifateachersays,“Ihaverunoutofchalk”intheprocessoflecturing,theactofsayingislocutionary,theactofdemandingforchalkisillocutionary,andtheeffecttheutterancebringsabout–oneofthestudentswillgoandgetsomechalk–isperlocutionary.InEnglish,illocutionaryactsarealsogivenspecificlabels,suchasrequest,warning,promise,invitation,compliment,complaint,apology,offer,refusal,etc.thesespecificlabelsnamevariousspeechfunctions.Asfunctionsmaynotcorrespondtoforms,speechactscanbedirectandindirect.Searle:twowaysofcommunication(performingacts)Directspeechact:Closethedoor.Indirectspeechact:It’scoldinhere.Whydopeopleoftenspeakindirectlyinsocialcommunication?Differentsocialvariables:age,sex,socialconditionPoliteness:communicativestrategyIndirectspeechactsarerelatedtoappropriateness.Indirectspeechactsaremadeforpoliteness,notviceversa.Tomakeappropriatechoicesdoesnotnecessarilymeanindirectspeechacts.CooperationandimplicatureConversationalImplicatureInourdailylife,speakersandlistenersinvolvedinconversationaregenerallycooperatingwitheachother.Inotherwords,whenpeoplearetalkingwitheachother,theymusttrytoconversesmoothlyandsuccessfully.Inacceptingspeakers’