產(chǎn)業(yè)集群和網(wǎng)絡(luò)建設(shè)外文翻譯文獻

產(chǎn)業(yè)集群和網(wǎng)絡(luò)建設(shè)外文翻譯文獻PAGEPAGE1Ⅲ-產(chǎn)業(yè)集群和網(wǎng)絡(luò)建設(shè)外文翻譯文獻產(chǎn)業(yè)集群和網(wǎng)絡(luò)建設(shè)外文翻譯文獻(文檔含英文原文和中文翻譯)外文：CLUSTERING,NETWORKINGANDCOMPETITIVEADVANTAGEAuthor:JohnHumphrey&HubertSchmitzNationality:U.K.Derivation:Principlesforpromotingclusters&networksofSMEs,CommissionedbytheSmallandMediumEnterprisesBranchOctober1995IndustrialdistrictsinEuropeappeartohavesecuredcompetitiveadvantageinthesupplytodemandnichemarkets.Theyhavedonethisbycompetingmainlyonthebasisofquality,design,speedofinnovationandspeedofresponse.Thismightseemfarremovedfrom,forexample,thecottonknitwearclusterofTiruppurinSouthIndia.Thisclusterhasachievedgreatsuccessinexportingbasiccottontextiles,butasyetitshowslittlecapacitytomoveintohighervaluemarketniches(SwaminathanandJeyaranjan1994).AnenormousgulfremainsbetweenthesmallknitwearfirmsofTiruppurandthe‘networksoftechnologicallysophisticated,highlyflexiblemanufacturingfirms’whichPioreandSabel(1984:17)characterizeasthebasisoftheItaliansuccess.However,itwillbearguedherethatthesedifferingcasesdohaveimportantthingsincommon,andthatwhattheyhaveincommonprovidesthepotentialforclusterssuchasTiruppurtoupgradetheirfacilitiesandbecometechnologicallymoresophisticatedandmorecapableofcompetingindemandingmarkets.Whattheyhaveincommonisthecompetitiveadvantagewhichariseswhenenterpriseswhichareclusteredtogetheraredrivenforwardbytheneedsofdemandingcustomers.Theideathattherearegainsinclusteringisoldhatinindustrialeconomics.ItcanbetracedbacktoAlfredMarshall’sanalysisofindustrialdistrictsinBritain.InhisPrinciplesofEconomics(1stedition,1890),Marshallstressedtheeconomieswhich‘canoftenbesecuredbytheconcentrationofmanysmallbusinessesofasimilarcharacterinparticularlocalities’(8thedition,1920,221).Hereferstosuchgainsas‘externaleconomies’andseesthemasparticularlyrelevanttosmallfirms.TheconceptofexternaleconomiesisintroducedbyMarshallinordertodrawout(i)whyandhowthelocationofindustrymatters,and(ii)whyandhowsmallfirmscanbeefficientandcompetitive.Inhisownwords,‘wenowproceedtoexaminethoseveryimportantexternaleconomieswhichcanoftenbesecuredbytheconcentrationofmanysmallbusinessesofasimilarcharacterinparticularlocalities’(1920:221).Hereferstosuchlocalitiesas‘localizedindustry’or‘industrialdistricts’.Hedoesnotprovideadefinitionforeither,buthisexamplesmakeitclearthathemeantaclusterwithadeepinter-firmdivisionoflabour. Theconceptofexternaleconomiesisessentialtounderstandefficiencyadvantageswhichsmallfirmsderivefromclustering.Thereremains,however,theproblemthattheconceptisrestrictedtounplannedgainsorlosses.AsstatedbyMishan(1971:2),‘theessentialfeatureoftheconceptofanexternaleffectisthattheeffectproducedisnotadeliberatecreationbutanunintendedorincidentalby-productofsomeotherwiselegitimateactivity.Suchincidentaleffectsareofenormousimportanceincontemporaryindustrialdistricts,but-asstressedbyBrusco(1990),PioreandSabel(1984),Trigilia(1989)andothers-thereisalsoconsciouslypursuedjointaction.Suchjointactioncanbeoftwotypes,individualfirmscooperating(forexample,sharingequipmentordevelopinganewproduct)andgroupsoffirmsjoiningforcesinbusinessassociations,producerconsortiaandthelike.Theconceptofcollectiveefficiencybringstogethertheincidentalandconsciouslypursuedfirmsandseekstocapturetheessentialpointthatcompetitivenesscanneitherbeunderstoodnorenhancedbyfocusingonindividualfirms.Collectiveefficiencycanbedefinedasthecompetitiveadvantagesderivedfromlocalexternaleconomiesandjointaction(Schmitz1995b).Aclearunderstandingofwhatbringsaboutthiscollectiveefficiencyiscriticalforbothanalysisandpolicy.Agroupofproducersmakingsimilarthingsinthesamelocalityinitselfbringsfewbenefits.Itdoeshoweverhelpthemtospecialize;itattractssuppliersandbuyers,anditgeneratesapoolofspecializedworkers.AsshownbyRabellotti(1995b)theexternaleconomieswhichariserangefromstaticgainssuchaseasyavailabilityofinputs,todynamicgainssuchasthefastspreadofnewideasofhowtoinnovate.Beinginthesamesectorandlocationalsofacilitatestakingjointactionwhichagaincanrangefrommorestaticconcernssuchasassociationsdefendinglocalproducersindisputeswithgovernmentordynamicconcernssuchastakinggroupsoflocalproducerstoforeigntradefairsinthesearchfornewmarkets.Acommonmisconceptionisthatthestressoncollectiveefficiencymeansdenyingcompetition.Itdoesnot.Onthecontrary,rivalryisoftenparticularlysevereamongstclusteringproducers,butthisneednotstopthemfromjoiningforcestoovercomecommonbottlenecksininfrastructure,inputsupplyoraccesstodistantmarkets.Itisthecombinationofcompetitionandcooperationwhichdrivesthesearchforimprovement.Thecombinationsaremany,atypicalonebeingvariousmanufacturersengaginginclosecooperationwiththeirsuppliers(toimprovequalityandspeedydeliveryofcomponents)andthusoftenbenefitingtheirlocalrivalswhoworkwiththesamesupplier.譯文：集群、網(wǎng)絡(luò)和競爭優(yōu)勢作者：約翰?漢弗萊&休伯特?斯克米茲國籍：英國出處：《中小型企業(yè)推動產(chǎn)業(yè)集群和網(wǎng)絡(luò)建設(shè)的原則》，由中小型企業(yè)機構(gòu)委托撰寫，1995年10月工業(yè)區(qū)域在歐洲的從供應(yīng)到需求的市場上表現(xiàn)出強有力的競爭優(yōu)勢。這些競爭優(yōu)勢主要表現(xiàn)為：根本質(zhì)量、設(shè)計、創(chuàng)新和反應(yīng)的速度。這看起來與南印度的Tiruppur紡織業(yè)集群就沒什么關(guān)系。這個集群已經(jīng)在出口基本的棉紡織品上取得了巨大成功,但是它卻沒有能力進入更高價值層次的市場(斯霍米奈森和亞輪加，1994年)。一個極大的差距仍然存在于Tiruppur的小型針織品企業(yè)與皮爾羅和塞布爾(1984年:17)所描述的作為意大利成功的基礎(chǔ)的“高技術(shù)性網(wǎng)絡(luò)和高彈性制造企業(yè)”之間。然而,這里還是會產(chǎn)生爭議,這些不同的例子確有著重要的共同點,而這些共同點為譬如Tiruppur這樣的集群提供了升級他們設(shè)備的潛力，使他們的技術(shù)更復(fù)雜，以及有能力在需求市場上進行競爭。這些共同點在企業(yè)集團應(yīng)顧客需求擴大的情況下就成為了一種比較優(yōu)勢。產(chǎn)業(yè)聚集能產(chǎn)生額外利潤的想法已經(jīng)是工業(yè)經(jīng)濟方面的老說法了。那可以追溯到阿爾弗雷德?馬歇爾在大不列顛作出的地方性工業(yè)理論。在他的《經(jīng)濟學(xué)原理》(1890年第1版)中,馬歇爾強調(diào)了“某一地區(qū)內(nèi)具有相同特征的許多小企業(yè)聚集在一起”的經(jīng)濟(1920年,第8版,第221頁)。他提到“外部經(jīng)濟”效應(yīng)，把它們看作是小型企業(yè)的特殊相關(guān)性。馬歇爾提到外部經(jīng)濟的概念是為了給出(i)當(dāng)?shù)毓I(yè)因素如何，以及(ii)小公司為什么、如何能有效競爭。用他自己的話來講,“我們現(xiàn)在進行審查那些某一地區(qū)內(nèi)具有相同特征的小企業(yè)聚集在一起產(chǎn)生的重要的外部經(jīng)濟效應(yīng)(1920年，第221頁)。他稱這種現(xiàn)象為“地方性工業(yè)”或“工業(yè)區(qū)域”。他沒有給這兩者給出一個定義，但是從他的案例可以清楚地看出，他指的是在企業(yè)內(nèi)部勞動力高度分工的產(chǎn)業(yè)集群。外部經(jīng)濟的概念是了解小型企業(yè)從機群獲得有效優(yōu)勢本質(zhì)所在。然而,此外這個效應(yīng)還存在著額外損益的問題。依照米尚(1971年:2)的陳述“外部經(jīng)濟效益的本質(zhì)特征是,高效的生產(chǎn)不是一種有計劃的創(chuàng)造，而是由一些無意識或者偶然的合理行為所產(chǎn)生的。這樣偶然效應(yīng)對當(dāng)代工業(yè)區(qū)域有極大的重要性,但是正如布魯斯克(1990年)、皮爾羅和塞布爾(1984年)、鵲格利亞(1989年)，和其他人所說，在這一系列行為中必然存在有意識的追求。這一系列行為有兩種類型：個別企業(yè)合作(例如,共享設(shè)備或開發(fā)一個新產(chǎn)品)，以及一些企業(yè)組成商業(yè)協(xié)會、生產(chǎn)商財團等等。集合效應(yīng)帶來偶然的和友誼是追求的企業(yè)，并尋求既不是已知的也不是被個別企業(yè)放大的競爭力的本質(zhì)所在。集合效應(yīng)被定義為本地外部經(jīng)濟和一系列行為的比較優(yōu)勢(斯克米茲1995年b)。顯而易見，是什么帶來了這種集合效應(yīng)在分析中和政策上都是有爭議的。一群生產(chǎn)商在同一個地區(qū)生產(chǎn)類似的產(chǎn)品所帶來的效益是很小的。集合效應(yīng)能產(chǎn)生專業(yè)化分工；吸引供應(yīng)商和買家,培養(yǎng)專業(yè)的熟練工人群。按瑞羅伯特所解釋的(1995年b)外部經(jīng)濟效應(yīng)是包括靜態(tài)收益，如簡單的投入，和動態(tài)收益，如如何革新的新想法產(chǎn)生的速度。在同一個地區(qū)、同一個領(lǐng)域，以及利用相同的設(shè)備來進行的一系列活動，并且也是包括靜態(tài)關(guān)系，譬如協(xié)會為保護地方生產(chǎn)商政府發(fā)生爭執(zhí)，和動態(tài)關(guān)系，譬如使當(dāng)?shù)厣a(chǎn)商進入國際貿(mào)易領(lǐng)域，以尋求新的市場。共同的誤解是,人們認(rèn)為集合效應(yīng)意味著否認(rèn)競爭。其實，正好相反,競爭在產(chǎn)業(yè)聚集的生產(chǎn)商中往往更加激烈,但這不能阻止他們以合作來克服在基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施、投入、進入遠方市場上的共同瓶頸。這是一種既競爭又合作的共同推動產(chǎn)業(yè)提升的組合。組合有許多種,一個典型就是各種各樣的制造商與他們的供應(yīng)商密切合作(改進質(zhì)量和加快各組件的交付)，并且這樣一來，他們在當(dāng)?shù)氐呐c其有著相同的供應(yīng)商的競爭者也會從中受益。外文：LESSONSFROMDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESAuthor:JohnHumphrey&HubertSchmitzNationality:U.K.Derivation:Principlesforpromotingclusters&networksofSMEs,CommissionedbytheSmallandMediumEnterprisesBranchOctober1995Thepurposeofthissectionistoexplorehowcollectiveefficiencycanbefosteredindevelopingcountries.ThisisnotdonebyhypotheticalreasoningbutbydrawingonrealcaseswhichgiveinsightsonhowpublicpolicycanpromoteclusteringandnetworkingofSMEs.Thereis,ofcourse,nowasubstantialexperienceinpoliciesforSMEsindevelopingcountries.Whilerarelyfocusedoncollectiveefficiency,agooddealofprogresshasbeenmadeoverrecentyears,notablyintwoareas:(1)reducingthelargefirmbiasintheoveralllegalandpolicyframework:whilenotalwayspractiseditisawellrecognizedpriority(LiedholmandMead1987;Mead1995;Stewart1989;Young1993);(2)channellingcredittoSMEs:successfullendingschemestendtobebasedlocally,havedecentralizeddecisionmaking,screenloanrequestsonthebasisofcharacteroftheentrepreneurandprojectfeasibility(ratherthancollateral),chargeinterestrateshighenoughtocoveroperatingexpenses,andsometimesusepeerpressureforrepayment(Levitsky1986;LiedholmandMead1987;OteroandRhyne1994;SanyalandPradhan1992).Lessprogresshasbeenmadeinnonfinancialassistance.Mostattemptstoprovidesuchassistancetendtosufferfromthreedeficiencies.First.,theyaretoosupplyoriented-thatis,overlyfocusedoninputsforproduction(skills,technology,rawmaterials)andnotsufficientlyconcernedwithwhowouldbuytheoutputs.Second,theyarerarelysustainable.Thishastwocomponents:thehighcostinreachingouttoamultitudeofSMEsandthelowconcernwithcostrecoveryforsupportservices.Third,theyhaveatbestaone-offeffectontheperformanceoftheassistedenterprisebutrarelyleadtoacapacityforself-helpandcontinuousupgrading.TheTripleCapproachpresentedinthispapertriestoovercomesomeofthosedeficiencies.However,itisnotjustaboutatypeofintervention,butratheritconcernsaparticularconfigurationofSMEs,oneinwhichtheyclusterornetwork.Thisiswhy,beforeplungingfurtherintopolicy,weneedtoestablishwhetherindevelopingcountriesthereisfertilegroundforthenewapproach,inotherwords,whetherclusteringisofrelevancetotheorganizationofmanufacturingindevelopingcountries.1.CLUSTERINGINDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESTheinternationalattentiongiventoclustersowesmuchtotheEuropean,especiallyItalian,experience.Thequestionaddressedinthissectionishowcommonclustersareindevelopingcountries.Statisticsarenotavailableforthispurpose,butabriefoverviewcanbeprovided-basedonareviewbyNadviandSchmitz(1994),updatedforthispaper.Themainconclusionisthatclusteringseemscommoninawiderangeofcountriesandsectors.SomeclustersinLatinAmericaandAsiahaveacquiredgreatdepthintermsoftheconcentrationofspecializedsuppliersandsupportbodies.AmongthoseforwhichstudiesareavailablearethemetalworkingandtextileindustriesofLudhianaintheIndianPunjab(Tewari1990;1992);theindustryofTiruppurinTamilNadu(Cawthorne1990,1995);thediamondindustryofSuratinGujrat(Kashyap1992);theengineeringandelectronicsclusterofBangaloreinKarnataka(Holmstr?m1993);thefootwearclustersofAgrainUttarPradesh(Knorringa,1993)theSinosValleyinBrazil(Schmitz1995a),TrujilloinPeru(Tavara,1993;SanMartinBaldwinetal.1994),andLeonandGuadalajarainMexico(Rabellotti1993,1995b);theKoreantextileclusterinDaegu(Cho1994);sportsgoodsandsurgicalequipmentinSialkot,cutleryinWazirabadandelectricalfansinGujratinPakistan(Nadvi1992;1995).InAfricanclusters,theinterfirmdivisionoflabourandinstitutionalsupporttendtobelessdeveloped,asobservedinthemetalworking,furnituremaking,garmentandotherclustersinKenya,ZimbabweandTanzania(Rasmussen1991;Sverrisson1993;McCormick1994).Whileprimarilyanurbanphenomena,clusteringcanalsobeafeatureofruralindustrialisation,asinIndonesiawhereonecanfindthespecializationofentirevillages(Weijland1994),forexample,themanufactureofrooftiles(Sandee,1994)orrattanfurnitureinJava(Smyth1992).Withintheurbanarena,clusterslocatedinintermediatetownsseemtohavebeenparticularlysuccessful,asindicatedbytheirgrowthrecordsandabilitytocompeteinexportmarkets.Incontrasttoclustersinsmall-andmedium-sizedtowns,thoseinmajorcitiestendtobelessrootedhistoricallyandhavesometimesemergedfrominformalself-employmentcopingstrategiesofthepoor.Despitethat,manysuchclustersdisplayagrowthpotentialthatgoesbeyondinformalsurvivalstrategiesandindicateslocalizedcompetitivenessbasedonincreasingspecialisationamongstsmallfirms;examplesarethemetalandrepairworkshopsintheTakoradistrictofLima,Peru(Villaran,1993),andSuame,theindustrialshantysuburbofKumasi,Ghana(Dawson1992).Thesearejustsomeoftheexampleswhichcanbeidentifiedintherecentliteratureandwhichsuggestthatclusteringisofsignificancetotheindustrialorganizationofsmall-scalemanufacturingindevelopingcountries.譯文：從發(fā)展中國家得出的結(jié)論作者：約翰?漢弗萊&休伯特?斯克米茲國籍：英國出處：《中小型企業(yè)推動產(chǎn)業(yè)集群和網(wǎng)絡(luò)建設(shè)的原則》，由中小型企業(yè)機構(gòu)委托撰寫，1995年10月這部分的目的是揭示集合效應(yīng)在發(fā)展中國家是如何運作的。這里不是以假設(shè)，而是用基于公共政策如何推動中小型企業(yè)產(chǎn)業(yè)集群及網(wǎng)絡(luò)發(fā)展的真實的案例來說明。當(dāng)然，現(xiàn)在發(fā)展中國家在對中小型企業(yè)的政策上有一套正確的經(jīng)驗總結(jié)。雖然很少被關(guān)注，但是近年來，集合效應(yīng)取得了很大的進步，主要表現(xiàn)在兩個方面：（1）降低大型企業(yè)在整個法律和政策中偏好的影響：在被公認(rèn)的優(yōu)先權(quán)下，它不總是正確的（里德侯和米德，1987年；米德，1995年；斯沃特，1989年；楊，1993年）；（2）