語言學(xué)-Chapter 4-Syntax知識點(diǎn)

語言學(xué)_Chapter4_Syntax知識點(diǎn)TeachingObjectiveCriticalThinkingPresentandSolveProblemsUnderstandMacroscopicallyStudyofsentencefromdifferentperspectivesUnderstandMicroscopicallyChomsky:Generativeapproach

第四章句法學(xué)句子是由什么構(gòu)成的？人們是如何產(chǎn)生和理解句子的？句子在語法系統(tǒng)中處于什么樣的地位？構(gòu)成句子的成分（如，短語、詞）是如何構(gòu)成的？不同的句子類型是如何產(chǎn)生的？以上問題是否可以通過形式分析來描述？

是否可以用一些普遍的規(guī)則概括句子的結(jié)構(gòu)？形式主義對句子結(jié)構(gòu)描述：簡單的操作、雅致的描寫、嚴(yán)格、清晰的邏輯。Syntaxreferstothestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguageorsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.Moreversions,Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.Whatis

syntax?Whatistherelationshipbetweensyntax,morphologyandphonology?ThewrittensystemoflanguageSentencesyntaxClausesyntaxPhrasesyntaxWordmorphologyExlesI

think

that

that

that

that

that

student

wrote

on

the

blackboard

was

wrong.

Imetaman(whohadason(whosewifesoldcookies(thatshehadbakedinherkitchen(thatwasfullyequippedwithelectricalappliances(thatwerenew).))))

Ithink(thatthatthat[thatthatstudentwroteontheblackboard]iswrong).ApproachestothestudyofsentencesThetraditionalapproachThestructuralapproachThegenerativeapproachThefunctionalapproach

SentenceRule-governedsentenceformation

TraditionalapproachWord

Structuralapproach

Generativeapproach

Functionalapproach

Thetraditionalapproachtakesasentenceas(1)(句子觀)asequenceofwords.(2)(研究視角)Itstudiessentenceformationbystudyingwordsintermsofcategories

（范疇）andtheirinterrelationships.

Traditionalapproach

數(shù)、性、格、時(shí)、體、態(tài)

一致、支配Sentence:traditionalapproach

simpleSentence complex復(fù)合句

non-simple compound并列句

Thestructuralapproachregardlinguisticunitsasinterrelatedwitheachotherinastructure(system),notasisolatedbits.Thisapproachtogrammar,basedonSaussure’sideasoflanguage,studiestheinterrelationshipsbetweenwords.

Structuralapproach橫組合、縱聚合

AsentenceHasalinearstructure,hierarchicalstructure直接成分分析法

Generativeapproachismainlyreferredtotransformational-generativegrammar(TG轉(zhuǎn)換生成語法)proposedbyNoamChomsky.Chomskyproposesthatthegrammarsofallhumanlanguagesshareacommonframework.

Generativeapproach深層結(jié)構(gòu)表層結(jié)構(gòu)轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則JanevisitedJohn’sbrother’swife’smother’sfather’scousin’sfriend’sstore.SNPVP(V+NP)

Afunctionalapproachoffersanalternativetostructuralism(formalism)Languagecannotbedescribedwithoutexaminingitsfunction.Systemic-functionalapproachstartsfromclauseandextendsitselftodiscourse.Itinvolveswhatlanguagecanshow(ideationalfunction),whatkindofrelationcanitestablish(interpersonalfunction),andinwhatway(textualfunction).

FunctionalapproachFunctionalsentenceperspectivedenotestheanalysisofasentenceinrespecttoitscommunicativefunction.Thebasisofthesentenceisknowninformation,calledthetheme(topic,given),whilethatwhichissaidabouttheknowninformationisconsideredtobetherheme(comment,new).Sentence:functionalapproach

Yes/noInterrogativeIndicativewh-DeclarativeSentence

Imperative

AnalysisofgenerativeapproachChaptercontentsThegirlateanapple.4.2howtodefineeachwordinthesentence?4.5Howisthesentenceformed?4.3,4.4Howtodescribethephrasesinvolved?ArevisedoutlineforChapter4

4.2Wordcategories（word-formationrules[morphology]）4.3&4.4Phrasecategoriesphrase-formationrules(4.3)Phraseelements(4.4)4.5&4.6SentencecategoriesSentence-formationrules(4.6)

4.2WordCategories（范疇）Categoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.

Word-level(Lexical)categories

Major

English

lexical

categories實(shí)義語類Noun

(N)

student,lecture,JohnVerb

(V):

like,read,goAdjective

(Adj):

tall,lovely,redPreposition(P)about,over,onEnglishminor

lexicalcategories功能語類Minor

English

lexical

categoriesDeterminer(Det):

the,a,this,thoseDegreewords:quite,very,more,soQualifier(Qul):often,always,seldom,almostAuxiliary

(Aux):

can,will,do,do,be,haveConjunction

(Conj):

and,or,butComplementizer(C):that,if,for,whetherThecriteriaonwhichcategoriesaredetermined(textbook,p.43-44)MeaningInflectionDistributionForexle,Thegirlateanapple.Summaryofcategory詞屬于不同的類別；傳統(tǒng)語法中稱為“詞性”(partofspeech)或“詞類”(wordclass),生成語法中多稱為句法類（syntacticcategory)或語法類（grammaticalcategory),簡稱語類(category)詞可劃分為十個(gè)語類：名詞、動(dòng)詞、形容詞、副詞、介詞、限定詞、代詞、助動(dòng)詞、標(biāo)記詞和連詞。根據(jù)它們是否具有詞匯意義、是否屬于開放性語類，這些單詞語類又可分為兩大類：實(shí)義語類(contentcategory;contentive）和功能語類(functioncategory;functor)。實(shí)義語類在句中主要表示詞匯意義，基本都屬于開放性語類；功能語類主要表示語法功能，都屬于封閉類語類。4.3Phrasecategories

4.2.2Phrasestructure4.3PhrasestructureruleXPruleCoordinationrule4.4PhraseelementsSpecifiersComplementsModifiersPHRASEisasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalofclauses.ThephrasecategoriesThemajortypesofphrasesNPVPAPPPPhrasestructurerulePleasegroupthefollowingphrasesintocategories:thosepeoplefinishassignmentsthefishontheplatealwaysplaygamesontheshelfveryclosetoquitenearthestation(textbook,p.45)PhrasestructureruleNP

(Det)+N+(PP)…e.g.thosepeople,thefishontheplate,prettygirls.VP

(Qual)+V+(NP)…e.g.alwaysplaygames,finishassignments.AP

(Deg)+A+(PP)…veryhandsome,verypessimistic,familiarwith,veryclosetoPP

(Deg)+P+(NP)…ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestation.(textbook,p.45)Istherearuletogeneralizeallthephrasestructures?Tobemoreabstract,XPruleamoreabstractbutsimplerformulas:XP(specifier)X(complement)Anythingwronginthefollowingsentences?Whichphraseruledoeseachofthefollowingsentencesinclude?

1.Helenputonherclothes,wearingherhatandwentout.2.Mymomboughtmeareddressandanewbagandanewphoneaspresent.3.Theboyismovingwithcarethehugestone.4.Iverymuchlikeyou.CoordinationruleCoordinationstructures-----thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,etc.E.g.,Thereare…,…and…Youmayhave…,…or…HowwillXPindicatestructuressuchas:Apples,orangesandbananasCoordinationrule4.4phraseelements:revisedXPruleHowwillXPrulesdescribemorecomplexphrasestructuressuchas:Mymomboughtmeanew…Therefore,morerevisionsoftherulebelow:ExpandedversionsofXPrule4.4.2(p.48)Howtoillustratephraseswithmorethanonecomplement?(textbook,p.47-49)Sendme

anemailPutit

onthewallComplement:TheXPrulerevisedXP(specifier)X(complement*)Complements,howevermanythereare,occurtotherightoftheheadinEnglish.Howtoillustrateasentence-likecomplement?Complementizer+complementclause4.4.2Howtoillustrateasentence-likecomplement?E.g.,Iwasafraid

thatnobodywouldbelieveme.

Matrixclause[CP]CP=Complementizer+complementclause

Complementizercomplementclause4.4.3ModifiersA

verycharming

lady

atthecarexhibition

(Specifier)(modifier)head(complement)WhatisthepositionofmodifiersintheXPrulestructures?TheexpandedXPrule:XP(specifier)(Mod)X(complement*)(Mod)Amodifiercanoccureitherbeforeorafterthehead.Wherethereisacomplement,amodifierthatoccursaftertheheadwilloccurtotherightofthecomplementaswell.E.g.,acarefulgirl,readcarefully,readabookcarefullyopenthecanwithcareNow,SrulesTherulesgoverningtheformationofsentencesTHESRULESNPVP4.5&4.6ThestructureofSentences

Howaredifferentsentencepatternsproduced?Whatisthedifferenceofthefollowingthreesentences?Henrywashappytohearit.Maryiseasytoteach.Theclothesareeasytowash.剩女產(chǎn)生的原因：一是誰都看不上，二是誰都看不上在屋頂上發(fā)現(xiàn)了小王Atreediagramusedtolabelthephrasestructure樹形圖最為直觀，不僅顯示出句子的線性結(jié)構(gòu)(linearrelationship)，而且清楚地表明其階層結(jié)構(gòu)（hierarchicalstructure）上面講的這些規(guī)則都是通過線性的方式實(shí)現(xiàn)的。下面將介紹生成語法中最常用的直接成分分析法(ICanalysis)，該方法對短語或句子結(jié)構(gòu)的分析表現(xiàn)為樹形圖（treediagram）TheanalysisofsentencescanbecarriedoutinwaysofICAnalysis(直接成分分析法)通常通過bracketing(方括號分析法)和treediagrams(樹形圖）實(shí)現(xiàn)。ICAnalysisreferstodivisionofasentenceupintoimmediateconstituentsbyusingbinarycuttinguntilobtainingitsultimateconstituents.

（把句子按其組成部分/成分用兩進(jìn)制切分法/二分法一直劃到最小的語法單位－又稱最終成分。）

Immediateconstituents（直接成分）:thetwopartsthatareyieldedafterasentenceiscutintoitsconstituentelements.Ultimateconstituent（最終成分）:thesmallestgrammaticalunitobtainedthroughthedivision,orsegmentationortheformsattheword-level.這樣的圖形像一棵倒立的樹，故稱為樹形圖(treediagram)，文獻(xiàn)中常簡稱為樹（tree)，也叫短語標(biāo)記(phrasemarker)。下面介紹關(guān)于樹形圖的一些基本概念.樹形圖上語類標(biāo)記所在的點(diǎn)稱為節(jié)點(diǎn)（node)，連接節(jié)點(diǎn)的直線叫樹枝（branch)。一個(gè)節(jié)點(diǎn)向下分成兩條或更多條直線叫分杈該節(jié)點(diǎn)叫分杈節(jié)點(diǎn)（branchingnode)；只向下延伸出一條直線的節(jié)點(diǎn)叫“非分杈節(jié)點(diǎn)”，上例中NP,VP,PP是分杈節(jié)點(diǎn),V,P,DET,N是非分杈節(jié)點(diǎn)。樹形圖上節(jié)點(diǎn)間的關(guān)系常被形象地喻為親緣關(guān)系。分杈節(jié)點(diǎn)稱為母親節(jié)點(diǎn)(mothernode)簡稱母節(jié)；分杈產(chǎn)生的節(jié)點(diǎn)是母節(jié)的女兒節(jié)(daughternode)兩個(gè)女兒節(jié)互為姐妹節(jié)（sisternodes)，在上例中，VP向下分杈長出V和NP兩個(gè)節(jié)點(diǎn)，VP是母節(jié)，V和NP是VP的兩個(gè)女兒節(jié)，兩者又互為姐妹節(jié)。反過來，PP又是P和NP的母親節(jié)，P和NP互為姐妹節(jié)，是PP的兩個(gè)女兒。

moreexlesofICanalysis

Thegirlatetheapple(S).the+girl(NP)ate+the+apple(VP)

ImmediateConstituentAnalysis

(ICAnalysis)

(1)bracketing

(((The)(girl))

((ate)

((the)(apple))))ImmediateConstituentAnalysis(ICAnalysis)(2)Thegirlatetheapple

(3)LabeledTreediagram

SNPVPDetNVNPDetNThegirlatetheapple

4.6Transformationrules

IntroductionofTGgrammarDeepstructureandsurfacestructureSometransformationrules轉(zhuǎn)換生成語法Chomsky，1957年提出；1965年，Chomsky將其理論發(fā)展為標(biāo)準(zhǔn)理論（standardtheory,簡稱ST）屬形式語言學(xué)范疇，依靠演繹、形式、符號、公式等與內(nèi)容相對的手段來分析語言。“轉(zhuǎn)換生成”是什么意思？語法可以生成從未用過的正確語句；語法描寫涉及兩種表達(dá)式或結(jié)構(gòu)描寫之間的運(yùn)算和轉(zhuǎn)換。

Chomsky,whohastaughtattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologysince1955,developedatheoryoftransformationalgrammarthatrevolutionizedthescientificstudyoflanguage.Hefirstsetouthisabstractanalysisoflanguageinhisdoctoraldissertation(1955)andSyntacticStructures(1957).Insteadofstartingwithminimalsounds,asthestructurallinguistshaddone,Chomskybeganwiththerudimentaryorprimitivesentence;fromthisbasehedevelopedhisargumentthatinnumerablesyntacticcombinationscanbegeneratedbymeansofacomplexseriesofrules.

NoamChomskyNoamChomskywasbornonDecember7,1928inPhiladelphia,Pennsylvania.HisundergraduateandgraduateyearswerespentattheUniversityofPennsylvaniawherehereceivedhisPhDinlinguisticsin1955.

轉(zhuǎn)化生成語法

轉(zhuǎn)換生成語法:它產(chǎn)生于20世紀(jì)50年代，由形式語法學(xué)家喬姆斯基提出。他認(rèn)為僅僅描寫語法形式是不夠的，而要探索隱藏在語法行為背后的人類普遍的“語法能力”，這種語言能力通過一套“深層結(jié)構(gòu)”向“表層結(jié)構(gòu)”的轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則，從而把意義和形式結(jié)合起來，把靜態(tài)描寫提高到動(dòng)態(tài)描寫。轉(zhuǎn)換生成語法認(rèn)為，語言是受規(guī)則支配的體系，人具有天生的語言習(xí)得機(jī)制和語言能力。人類使用語言不是靠機(jī)械模仿和記憶，而是不斷理解、掌握語言規(guī)則、舉一反三地創(chuàng)造性地運(yùn)用語言的過程。句子的產(chǎn)生語法→轉(zhuǎn)換部分→表層結(jié)構(gòu)→語音部分→句子的語音表現(xiàn)基礎(chǔ)部分→深層結(jié)構(gòu)→語義部分→句子的語義表現(xiàn)

上圖是一個(gè)轉(zhuǎn)換-生成語法的理論框圖。語法主要包括基礎(chǔ)和轉(zhuǎn)換兩個(gè)部分，基礎(chǔ)部分生成深層結(jié)構(gòu)，深層結(jié)構(gòu)通過轉(zhuǎn)換得到表層結(jié)構(gòu)，語義部分屬于深層結(jié)構(gòu)，它為深層結(jié)構(gòu)作出語義解釋。語音部分屬于表層結(jié)構(gòu)并為表層結(jié)構(gòu)作出語音解釋。

ThegoalofTGgrammaristofindoutasystemofrulestoaccountforthelinguisticcompetenceofnativespeakersofalanguagetoformgrammaticalsentences.toprovidetherulesthatcanbeusedtogenerategrammaticalsentences;toshowhowbasicsentencescanbetransformedintoeither

synonymousphrasesormorecomplexsentences.

DeepStructureandSurfaceStructureAccordingtoTG,humanbeingspossesstwogrammars:–aphrasegrammarwhichconsistsoftherulesgoverningidealizedsentenceformation;--atransformationalgrammar,whichenablesustomanipulatesentencestoproducethefullrangeofsentencetypes.Asaconsequence,everysentencehasasurfacestructureandadeepstructure.Deepstructure

Theabstractrepresentationofthesyntacticpropertiesofaconstruction.--revealstheunderlyingstructureofalinguisticutteranceandspecifiesthegrammaticalrelationsandfunctionsofthesyntacticelements.Ablueprintfortheconstructionofwell-formedsentences.

SurfaceStructureTheactuallyproducedstructurethestructuralorganizationofaconstructionpeopleactuallyproduceandreceivethedirectlyobservableactualformofsentencesastheyareusedincommunicationAsentencestructureresultingfromtheapplicationoftransformationalrules.Lookatthefollowingillustration:

Howisasentenceproduced?

Surface

Structure(Transformationrules)DeepStructure

Therepresentationsofthesetwolevelsdon’thavetobedifferent.Whentransformationsarenotnecessary,therepresentationsofthetwolevelslookthesame.4.3.2SentenceTransformationWecangeneratealargenumberofsentenceswithonlyasmallnumberofrules,i.e.,“phrasestructure”rules.Tree-diagramformatcandescribethetransformationprocess.--astaticrepresentationofthestructureofthesentenceatthebottomofthediagram.--a“dynamic”format,inthesensethatitrepresentsawayof“generating”notonlythatonesentence,butaverylargenumberofsentenceswithsimilarstructuresHowdoestransformationtakeplace?Twoprocesses：Everytransformationisbasedonthedeletionandinsertionofconstituents.Substitution(thedeletionandinsertionofdifferentelementsinthesameplace)andpermutation(thedeletionofanelementfromoneplaceanditsinsertioninanother)areoperationsderivedfromdeletionandinsertionofconstituents.Howdothefollowingtransformationstakeplace?Howarethefollowingstructures/sentencesproduced?Willthetrainarrive?4.6.1auxiliarymovementDobirdsfly?4.6.2doinsertionWhatwillyoutalkabout?Whatlanguagescanyouspeak?4.6.4whmovementAgeneralSrule:Movealpha“α”Anexleofactive-passivetransformationThepassivetransformationdealswiththerelationbetweenpairslike:

(a)Theboysawcats.(b)Catswereseenbytheboy.

4.6.1Aux-movement（助動(dòng)詞移動(dòng)）

Themovementofanauxiliaryverb

tothesentence-initial

position,suchasbe,have,do,will,can,andshould.eg.Johnwillbuyapresent.WillJohnbuyapresent?TheInversionRule4.6.2DoinsertionInsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflpositioneg.Birdsfly.Birdsdofly.Dobirdsfly?

4.6.4WH-movement

WH-movementisobligatory

inEnglish,whichchangesasentencefromaffirmative

tointerrogative.eg.Johnwillbuywhat.WhatwillJohnbuy?JohnwillputbookswhereWherewillJohnputbooks?

Moveαandconstraintsontransformations

InversioncanmoveanauxiliaryfromtheInfltothenearestCposition,butnottoamoredistantCposition.