沒有什么比得上的了？調(diào)查食品成本是城市動蕩的驅(qū)動因素（英）

InternationalInteractions

EmpiricalandTheoreticalResearchinInternationalRelations

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NothingCompares?InvestigatingtheCostofFood

asaDriverofUrbanUnrest

IdaRudolfsen&ToddG.Smith

Tocitethisarticle:IdaRudolfsen&ToddG.Smith(13Apr2024):NothingCompares?

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NothingCompares?InvestigatingtheCostofFoodasaDriverofUrbanUnrest

IdaRudolfsen

andToddG.Smith

PeaceresearchInstituteoslo(PrIo)

ABSTRACT

Increasingfoodpriceshaveimplicationsforbasicsubsistence,haveastrongpricevisibilityandsymbolicvalue,andarecharacterizedbyhighvolatilityandinelasticityofdemand.Researchthusassumesthatfoodpriceisanimportanttriggerforunrest.Yet,whetherfoodisanespeciallypotentdriverforpeople’swillingnesstoengageincollectiveaction,orwhetheritconcernsgrievancesaboutgeneralinflation,isunknown.Doesfoodhaveagreatereffectonthewillingnesstopartici-pateinunrest?ThepaperinvestigatestherelativeimportanceoffoodinmobilizationpotentialbyusinguniquedatafromasurveyexperimentinJohannesburg,SouthAfrica.Theexperi-mentcollectsinformationonhowpriceincreasesinfood,fuel,andelectricityaffectsrespondents’willingnesstoengageinunrest.Theresultsshowahigherwillingnesstoengageincollectiveactionwhenpresentedwithincreasinglivingexpenses,regardlessofwhetheritisfood,fuelorelectricity,comparedtostableprices.Wealsoconsiderthelevelofriskexposuretopricehikes,andfindthatthosewhoreportgoinghungryinthelastyearhaveahigherwillingnesstoengageinunrestthanthosewhodonot.Thus,foodaccessinfluencesthewillingnesstopartakeinunrestduringpricehikes,alsoforcommoditiesseeminglyunrelatedtofood.Thissuggeststhatforthosewhoaremostaffectedbyapricehikeitislessimportantwhattypeofcommodityitis.Thequestioniswhetheritintroducesfurtherstrainonanalreadyhard-stretchedbudget.

Lospreciosenaumentodelosproductosdealimentacióntienenimplicacionessobrelasubsistenciabásica.Además,estospreciosenaumentotambiéntienenunafuertevisibilidadenmateriadeprecioyunvalorsimbólico,ysecaracterizanporunaaltavolatilidadeinelasticidaddelademanda.Porlotanto,lainvestigaciónasumequeelpreciodelosalimentosesundesencadenanteimportantedeagitaciónsocial.Sinembargo,nosabemossielpreciodelosalimentosesunacausalosufi-cientementerelevanteparaquelaspersonasdecidanparticiparenaccionescolectivas,osiestasaccionesestánmásrelaciona-dasconquejassobrelainflacióngeneral.?Tienenlospreciosdelosalimentosunmayorefectosobreladisposicióndela

KEYWORDS

Livingexpenses;food;

Johannesburg,South

Africa;surveyexperiment;urbanunrest

CONTACTIdarudolfsen

idarud@

PeaceresearchInstituteoslo(PrIo),oslo,norway

supplementaldataforthisarticlecanbeaccessedonlineat

/10.1080/03050629.2024.2319096

.?2024theauthor(s).Publishedwithlicensebytaylor&FrancisGroup,llc

thisisanopenaccessarticledistributedunderthetermsofthecreativecommonsattributionlicense(

http://creativecommons.

org/licenses/by/4.0/

),whichpermitsunrestricteduse,distribution,andreproductioninanymedium,providedtheoriginalworkisproperlycited.thetermsonwhichthisarticlehasbeenpublishedallowthepostingoftheacceptedManuscriptinarepositorybytheauthor(s)orwiththeirconsent.

2

I.RUDOLFSENANDT.G.SMITH

poblaciónaparticiparendisturbiossociales?Esteartículoinvestigaesteasuntoutilizandodatosúnicosdeunexperi-mentodeencuestaenJohannesburgo,Sudáfrica.Esteexperi-mentorecogeinformaciónsobrecómolosaumentosdepreciosdelosalimentos,delcombustibleydelaelectricidadinfluyensobrelavoluntaddelosencuestadosaparticiparendisturbiossociales.Losresultadosmuestranunamayordisposiciónapar-ticiparenaccionescolectivascuandoexisteunaumentodeloscostesdevida,peroesteefectonoesmásfuerteparaelpreciodelosalimentosencomparaciónconotrosproductosbásicos.Tambiéntenemosencuentaelniveldeexposiciónalriesgodelassubidasdeprecios,ydescubrimosquequienesdeclaranhaberpasadohambreenelúltimoa?otienenunamayordis-posiciónaparticiparendisturbiossocialesquelosquenolohacen.Porlotanto,elaccesoalosalimentostienepotencialenmateriademovilización,nosolodebidoalosprecios,sinotam-biénentérminosdecómoinfluyeenladisposiciónaparticiparendisturbiossocialesdurantelosaumentosdeprecios.Estotambiénocurreparaproductosbásicosaparentementenorela-cionadosconlosalimentos.Estosugierequeparaaquellasper-sonasquesevenmásafectadasporunaumentodeprecios,eltipodeproductonoresultatanimportante.Lapreguntaquenoshacemosessiestocreamáspresiónsobreunasituaciónqueyaesvulnerableysobreunpresupuestomuyajustado.

Lahaussedesprixdel’alimentationentra?nedesconséquencespourlesmoyensdesubsistancedebase.Cesprixsontpartic-ulièrementvisiblesetleurvaleursymbolique,maisilssecar-actérisentégalementparunevolatilitéélevéeetunmanqued’élasticitédelademande.Aussilarechercheprésuppose-t-ellequeleprixdel’alimentationconstitueunfacteurdéclencheurimportantd’agitationurbaine.Pourtant,nousnesavonspasaveccertitudesil’alimentation,àelleseule,pousseeffective-mentlesgensàl’actioncollective,ous’ils’agitdavantaged’unmécontentementquantàl’inflationgénérale.L’alimentationincite-t-elledavantageàl’action?Cetarticles’intéresseàcettequestionàl’aidededonnéesuniquesissuesd’uneexpériencedesondageàJohannesburg,enAfriqueduSud.L’expériencerecueilledesinformationssurl’effetdel’augmentationdesprixdelanourriture,ducarburantetdel’électricitésurledésirduparticipantdesejoindreàl’agita-tion.D’aprèslesrésultats,cedésiraugmentequandleco?tdelavieaugmente,maisl’effetneserenforcepaspourleprixdelanourriture,comparéàd’autresmarchandises.Enprenantaussiencompteleniveaud’expositionaurisquedehaussedesprix,nousobservonsquelespersonnessignalantavoirsouffertdelafaimdurantl’annéepasséesontplusenclinesàparticiperàl’agitationsocialequelesautres.Ainsi,l’accèsàlanourriturepossèdeunpotentieldemobilisationvis-à-visdesonprix,maisaussiparcequ’ilauneincidencesurlavolontédeprendrepartàl’agitationlorsdeshaussesdeprix,etmêmepourdesmarchandisesquin’auraientaucunrapportaveclanourriture.Aussi,pourlespersonneslesplusaffectéesparleshaussesdeprix,letypedemarchandiseauraituneimportancemoindre.Unequestionsappara?talors:cessituationsdevulnérabilitéetd’insuffisancebudgétairenes’entrouvent-ellespasaggravées?

INTERNATIONALINTERACTIONS3

Introduction

Extantacademicliteraturesuggestsapositiveassociationbetweenhigherfoodpricesandunrest.

1

Studiesoffoodandcontentiousactionincreasedinthewakeofthefoodpricespikesin2007–2008and2010–2011andthecorrespondingunrestthatfollowed(Bellemare

2015

;BushandMartiniello

2017

;Sneyd,Legwegoh,andFraser

2013

).TheinterestinandimportanceofunderstandingthesocietalimpactsofincreasinglivingexpenseshasonlyfurtherbeenstrengthenedaftertheCOVID-19pandemicandtheRussianinvasionofUkraine.Concernsabouthighinflationhassweptacrosstheglobewherecountriesgrapplewithacostoflivingcrisis,andincreasingpricesofcommoditiessuchasenergy,foodandfertilizerpriceshascorrespondedwithprotestsinawiderangeofcountriesintheAmericas,Asia,Africa,andtheMiddleEast(Marsh,RudolfsenandAasRustad

2022

;HossainandHallock

2022

).

Theroleoffoodpricesisoftenpointedtoasaparticularlyrelevantphenomenonintherelativedeprivation–conflictnexus(e.g.Gurr

1970

;HendrixandHaggard

2015

).Thisisbecausefoodisassumedtohavespecificfeaturesthatseparatesitfromothercommodities,relatedtotheimportanceoffoodforbasicsubsistence,itspricevisibility,symbolism,andvolatilityandinelasticityofdemand(WeinbergandBakker

2015

).Yet,whilepreviousresearchpointstofoodasoneofthemostfundamentalaspectintherelativedeprivation–conflictlink,thequestionofwhetherfoodisamoreimportantcommoditycomparedtootherlivingexpensesinmotivatingparticipationinunrestremainssofarunexplored.Thisarticleseekstoshedlightonthisquestion:Isthecostoffoodanespeciallycompellingdriverforpeople’swillingnesstoengageinunrestcomparedtoothercommoditiesthatmakeupasubstantialshareofthehouseholdbudget?

Toaddressthisquestion,thestudyusesanindividual-levelapproachbyaskingconsumersabouttheirwillingnesstoengageinunrestfollowinganincreaseinthepriceoffood,fuelandelectricityrespectively.Intherealworld,thepricesoftheseitemsoftenshiftintandem.Asweseektoidentifytheimportanceofonecommoditypricehikeoveranother,andsincetheoutbreakofunrestmayalsoinfluencethepriceoffoodand

1

Weunderstandunrestasanoverarchingtermforvariousformsofcoordinatedactioninvolvingmultipleindividuals,andfocushereonsuchcollectiveeffortsoccurringinurbanareas.Weusecollectiveactionandunrestinterchangeablythroughoutthearticle.Theactioncanbemoreorlesslegitimate,organized,legalandviolent(Opp

2009

;Tilly

1978

).Whileweprobedifferenttypesofcollectiveaction,weargueforsimilaritiesintheunderlyingprocessthatmightgeneratecontentiousaction(McAdam,TarrowandTilly

2001

).Thedifferentformsofactionsincludedhereareattendingwardmeetingstoraiseconcern,demonstrations,strikes,andshuttingdowntraffic.Armedconflictisnotincludedinthisdefinition.Whilethetermunrestmayhavenegativenormativeassociationswithit,wepassnojudgmentoncollectiveactionasareactiontoincreasingcosts.Unrestisawell-establishedtermintheliterature,andweuseitheretoencompassavarietyofpossibleresponsestoincreasedhouseholdspending.

4I.RUDOLFSENANDT.G.SMITH

otheritems,weneedaresearchdesignthatcanaccountforendogeneityandallowustodistinguishbetweencauseandeffect(Raleigh,ChoiandKniveton

2015

).Thestudythereforemakesuseofavignetteexperimentwherewerandomlyassignrespondentstotreatmentandcontrolconditionsconsistingoffictionalnewsstoriesofcomingpricehikesandsubsequentlymapconsumerreactions.Westudyhowinformationaboutdifferentcom-moditypricesaffectsthestatedwillingnesstoengageinunrest.

WeusedatafromasurveyexperimentconductedinJohannesburg,SouthAfrica,andthecaseisparticularlywellsuitedtostudythephe-nomenonofinterestforseveralreasons.Johannesburghasexperiencedarelativelyhighnumberofbothpeacefulandviolentevents,especiallysincethemid2000s(Hart

2013

;Paret

2017

;Tournadre

2018

).Also,asinSouthAfricaingeneral,Johannesburgexhibitswidespreadpoverty,inequalityandfoodinsecurity(Chatterjee,CzajkaandGethin

2021

;Rudolphetal.

2012

;StatisticsSouthAfrica

2019

).Inaddition,thephenomenonofinterestisinacontextofurbanconsumers,withcorrespondingpopulationdensityandheterogeneitythatmayprovidemobilizationpotential(Verpoortenetal.

2013

).Atthesametime,thecaseexhibitssignificantvariationwithregardstobothunrestactivityandsocioeconomicstatus.

Theresultsshowthatrespondentsaremorewillingtoengageincol-lectiveactionwhenpresentedwithincreasinglivingexpensescomparedtostableprices,regardlessofwhetheritisfood,fuelorelectricity.Wealsoassessthelevelofvulnerabilitytopricehikesfortheindividual,andfindthatthosewhoreportgoinghungryinthelastyeararemorewillingtoengageinunrestovercommoditypricehikesthanthosewhodonot.Thus,foodhasmobilizationpotentialnotonlyduetoitsprice,butalsointermsofhowfoodinsecurityinfluencesthewillingnesstopartakeinunrestduringpricehikes,alsoforcommoditiesseeminglyunrelatedtofood.Thissuggeststhatforthosewhoaremostaffectedbyapricehikeitislessimportantwhattypeofcommodityitis.Thequestioniswhetheritintroducesfurtherstrainonanalreadyvulnerablesituationandhard-stretchedbudget.

Wecontributetotheliteratureonfoodandunrestinseveralways.First,whiletheliteratureonfoodpriceandcollectiveactionisgrowingrapidly,previousstudieshavereliedprimarilyonaggregateddata.Fillingthisgapintheliterature,thestudyutilizesindividual-leveldatatoassesstheimportanceofincreasedcostoflivingformobilizationpotential.Second,toourknowledge,thisstudyisalsothefirsttomapreactionstodifferentcommoditypricehikes,comparingfood,fuelandelectricityinanexperimentaldesigntoassessthewillingnesstoengageinunrestdependingonvariationinthesourceofincreasedlivingexpenses.Finally,thepapercontributestotheliteratureonrelativedeprivationandsocialconflictbyaccountingfornotonlyreactionstoincreasingprices,butalso

INTERNATIONALINTERACTIONS5

theindividual’svulnerabilitytoit.Whilepreviousstudieshavelargelyusedaggregatefoodpricesasaproxyforrelativedeprivationfortheindividual,wemeasureriskexposuredirectlybyaccountingforfoodinsecurity.Thus,thestudyseekstograppleandunderstandtherelativeimportanceoffoodincollectiveaction.Whileincreasinglivingcostscanhaveadverseimpactsonurbanconsumers,wehavelittleunderstandingofhowtheunderlyingvulnerabilitytosuchashockimpactmobilizationpotential.Somestrandsintheliteraturepointtotheimportanceoffoodbecauseofitsfundamentalnature,otherssuggestthatfoodfunctionsasthelaststrawthatignitesunrestduetogeneralinflation.Ourstudysuggeststhatitisboth,wherehighercostoflivingincreasesthewillingnesstoengageinunrest,butthiswillingnessiscontingentonthevulnerabilitytopricehikes.

Inthefollowingsections,webrieflypresentanoverviewoftheexistingliterature.Wethenoutlinethetheoreticalframeworkandhypotheses,beforeintroducingtheresearchdesignandanalysis.Subsequently,wediscusssomeofthethreatstoinferencegiventheresearchdesignandexternalvalidity,beforemakingsomeconcludingremarks.

IncreasingCostofLivingandSocialUnrest

Thebodyofresearchontheroleoffoodinprecipitatingunrestisvastandhavelonghistoricalroots(seee.g.Abbs

2020

,BeraznevaandLee

2013

,BienenandGersovitz

1986

,BrinkmanandHendrix

2011

,Bush

2010

,DeWinneandPeersman

2021

;HendrixandBrinkman

2013

,Hertel

2014

,Heslin

2021

,Jones,MattiacciandBraumoeller

2017

,KorenandBagozzi

2016

,Popkin

1979

,Rudé

1964

,Scott

1976

,Tilly

1971

,

1983

,Thompson

1971

,Walton

1994

,WeinbergandBakker

2015

),andthereisanemergingconsensusinthefieldthatincreasingfoodpricesleadtounrest,especiallyinurbanareas(Demarest

2014

;Rudolfsen

2020

).Recentquantitativestudies,usingbothlocal(Raleigh,ChoiandKniveton

2015

;Smith

2014

)andglobal(Bellemare

2015

;HendrixandHaggard

2015

;Sternberg

2012

)foodprices,havefoundthathigherfoodpricesincreasetheriskofunrest.ArezkiandBrückner(

2014

),forexample,pointtothewideninggapbetweenrichandpoorwhenpricesincrease.Thisinter-temporalchangeinrelativedeprivationsubsequentlyincreasedtheriskofconflict.Inthesamevein,Smith(

2014

)proposesthatcon-sumergrievancescouldincreaseunrestiftheelitecapturesincreasedrevenue,andtheeffectofrisingpricesonunrestisdrivenbyconsumergrievanceoverincreasedeconomicpressure.Economicgrievancesincreaseduetohighercostsasalargershareofthehouseholdbudgetisspentonincreasinglycostlylivingexpenses.

Relevantworkinthiscontextisalsostudiesexploringthelinkbetweenenergypricesandprotest.Whiletheliteratureonelectricitypricesand

6I.RUDOLFSENANDT.G.SMITH

unrestis,toourknowledge,scant

2

,therehasbeenanuptickinthenumberofstudiesfocusingonfuelpricesandvariousformsofsocialunrestinrecentyears(seee.g.Agbonifo

2023

;DubeandVargas

2013

;IshakandFarzanegan

2022

;Jetten,MolsandSelvanathan

2020

;Natalini,BravoandNewman

2020

).Forexample,VadlamannatianddeSoysa(

2020

)findthatbothhighoilpricesinoil-importingcountriesandlowoilpricesioil-pro-ducingcountriesleadtoprotest,conditionalonthelevelofforeignexchangereserves.Inaddition,investigating41countriesbetween2005and2018,McCullochetal.(

2022

)findthatdomesticfuelpriceshocksareakeydriverofriots.Theyalsofindthatcountrieswithlargefuelsubsidiesaremoreatriskoffuelriotswhenthispolicybecomesunsus-tainabletoupholdduetofiscalconcerns.Inametastudyincludingareviewof350studies,Blair,ChristensenandRudkin(

2021

)findthathigheroilpricesispositivelyassociatedwithconflict.

Basedonpreviousresearch,thereisoverallagreementintheliteraturethatincreasinglivingexpenses(especiallyintheformoffoodandfuelprices)ispositivelyassociatedwithsocialunrest.However,weknowmuchlessabouttheirrelativeimportanceinmobilizationpotentialbasedonconsumerpreferences.Inthefollowing,wethereforeoutlinetwopropo-sitionsonthemotivationtopartakeinunrestbasedonincreasinglivingexpenses,andwhethertheincreasingcostoffoodwouldbeanespeciallypotentdriverinthisregard.

WhyFoodPricesMaybeEspeciallyAggrieving

Thelinkbetweenhigherlivingcostsandsocialupheavaltendstobeexplainedthroughrelativedeprivation,acentraltheoryinconflictresearch(Gurr

1970

).Relativedeprivationistheexperiencedgapbetweenaperson’sdesiredandactualsituation,definedintermsofperceivedentitlements.Relativedeprivationincreaseswiththelossofentitlementswhenlivingexpensesrise.Feelingsofdeprivationcouldoccurbyaperson’sassessmentofdeterioratingwelfare,orbyinterpersonalorinter-groupcomparisons.

Studiesoftenpointtofoodassomethingespeciallyaggrieving,wherefeelingsofrelativedeprivationshouldbecomeparticularlysalientinthecaseoffoodpricehikes.Thisisbecausefoodhaswell-knownfeaturesthatseparateitfromothercommodities,suchasthenecessityoffoodpurchaseforbasicsubsistence,itspricevisibility,symbolism,andthevolatilityandinelasticityofdemand.Thefirstandmostfundamentalpropositionfor

2

Therehasbeenasignificantnumberofprotestsrelatedtoelectricitypricesinrecentyears,includingawiderangeofcountriessuchasBulgaria,Italy,SriLankaandLebanon(HossainandHallock

2022

).Moreresearchonthistopicisthereforeinhighdemand.

INTERNATIONALINTERACTIONS7

whyfoodpricewouldbeanespeciallylikelymechanismthroughwhichgrievancesleadtoconflictisthenecessityofpurchasingfoodforbasicsubsistence:“Theargumentwouldseemparticularlyplausibleforfood,whichisthemostbasicofallnecessitiesandtheonemostlikelytoembodyexplicitorimplicitpoliticalentitlements”(HendrixandHaggard

2015

,145).AccordingtoGurr,relativedeprivationismostlikelytooccuroverissuesthatpeoplebelievetheyarerightfullyentitled,whereitislikelythatfoodwouldbeonesuchentitlement.Thus,foodpriceswouldhaveaparticulareffectonthewelfareofpoorindividualswhoarenetpurchasersoffood(seee.g.D’SouzaandJolliffe(

2012

)).

3

Foodpurchaseasanessentialhumannecessitysuggeststhatrisingfoodpricesleadtorisingfoodinsecurityandareductionintheopportunitycostofviolentunrest.Thisargumentisbasedonthespecialnatureoffoodasnecessaryforhumansurvivalcom-paredtoothercommoditiesorcostsofliving.Inthewordsof(Bush

2010

,119):“Foodisacommodityanditsusevalue,unlikethoseofmostothercommodities,providesforthemaintenanceandreproductionoflifeitselfGrievance-inducedunrestwouldthereforeseemparticularlyplausibleforfood(Pinstrup-AndersenandShimokawa

2008

).

Second,foodpricecouldbeanespeciallycompellingdriverforunrestduetothevisibilityofincreasingfoodpricesfortheconsumer.WhileaggregateeconomictrendsandsmallerchangesintheGDPmaybedif-ficultforindividualstotrackandmakecalculationsaboutinordertoidentifypotentialgrievances,foodpricesaremucheasiertoobserveasconsumersmakechoicesbasedontheirownfinances,ratherthanaggre-gateeconomictrends.FoodisagoodpurchasedregularlyandisthereforeaccordingtoWeinbergandBakker(

2015

)thebestavailableindicatorofanindividual’seconomicwell-being.Itprovidesadirectassessmentofscarcityandisthereforebothmoreeasilyandmorefrequentlyobserved. Third,foodhasasymbolicvalueasathreattosubsistence.Forexample,accordingtoSimmons(

2016

),thethreattoaffordableaccesstowaterandtortillainMexicoheightenedsolidaritywithinandbetweencommunities,wherethethreattosubsistencegoodswerenotonlymaterialthreatsbutalsothreatstocommunity.Thethreattosubsistencehelpsbridgecleavagesbetweensocialgroupsandfacilitatewidespreadmobilization.Similarly,accordingto(Abbs

2020

,285),thecross-cuttingnatureofincreasingcostoffoodsetsitapartfromothertypesofissues.Foodpriceshocksprovide

3

Certainly,theoverallimpactofincreasingfoodpricesdependsonwhethertheindividualorhouseholdisnetproducerorconsumer.Theincomeoffarmhouseholds,oftenthepoorestincomegroupindevel-opingcountries,mayincreaseduetohigherfoodprices.However,studieshavefoundthattheoverallimpactoffoodpricesonpovertyisgenerallyadverseaspoorpeopletendtobenetconsumersoffoodandtherebyhurtbyhigherfoodprices.Thisisespeciallytrueforurbanhouseholds,whichisthefocusofthispaper(seee.g.CohenandGarrett

2010

;Ivanic,MartinandZaman

2012

).

8I.RUDOLFSENANDT.G.SMITH

anopportunityformovementstomobilizeacrossintra-ethnicdividesduetofoodpricesbeingauniqueandsymbolicissue,where“[…]foodpricespikesgeneratesuperordinategoalsthatunifynormallydividedgroupsAlso,HossainandScott-Villiers(

2017

)writethatfoodriotssignalthatthestateisunabletomeetthemostbasicconditionofthesocialcontract,whichcreatespressureonthestatetoaddressthemostfundamentaloffailings.

Increasingfoodpricesmaybedistinctiveasadriverofunrestcomparedtoothercostsoflivingfortwoadditionalreasons.First,foodpricesaregenerallymorevolatilethanothercommodities.Thisvolatilitymaycreateacutehardshipsduringtimesofparticularlysharpincreasesinwaysthatmorepredictablysteadyincreasesinothercostsoflivingwouldnot.Forexample,thecostofhousingisgenerallymuchmorestablethanthecostoffood.Whilethecostofhousingisoftenthelargestsingleexpenditure,afamily’srentorloanpaymentisoftensetformonthsoryearsinadvanceofwhentheexpensewillbeincurred.Whileanincreaseinthecostofhousingcanhaveasignificantimpactonahousehold’sbudget,itisgen-erallypredictableinadvanceand,therefore,moreeasilyadaptedto.Foodprices,however,canchangedaily,monthlyorweekly,whichcanplaceunforeseenstressonhouseholdbudgets(Tadesseetal.

2014

).Onecom-moditythatmayexhibitsimilarlevelsofvolatilitytofoodisthecostoffuel,particularlypetrolorgasolinefortransportation.Thecostoffuel,however,isdistinctfromfoodinanotherimportantway:risingfoodpricestendtohaveamoresubstantialimpacto