英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言學(xué)高級(jí)教程

SyllabusfortheCourse:Linguistics

l.TheStudyofLinguisticsandLanguage

2.Phonetics

3.Phonology

4.Morphology

5.Syntax

6.Semantics

7.Pragmatics

8.LinguisticComparison

9.Language,SocietyandCulture

10.Psycholinguitics

11.Stylistics

12.SecondLanguageAcquisition

13.LinguisticsandSecondlanguageteaching

14.Modernlinguisticschoolsandtheories

Textbook:

HuZhuanglinetal2002Linguistics:

AnAdvancedCourseBookPeking

UniversityPress

References:

Richards,JackC.etal.1997Longman

DictionaryofLanguageTeachingandApplied

LinguisticsLongman

Radford,etal.2000.Introductionto

Linguistics.外語(yǔ)教學(xué)與研究出版社

Robins,R.H2000GeneralLinguistics:An

introductorySurvey.外語(yǔ)教學(xué)與研究出版

社

Halliday,M.A.K1985.AnIntroductionto

FunctionalGrammar.EdwardArnold.

Leech,G.N.1981Semantics.Penguin

Palmer,F.R.1981.Semantics.Cambridge

UniversityPress.

Yule,George1997PragmaticsOxford

UniversityPress

Sapier,E.1964.Culture,Languageand

Personality.UniversityofcaliforniaPress

Wardhaugh,Ronald.1989AnIntroduction

toSociolinguisticsBasilBlackwell

Ellis,R1985UnderstandingSecond

LanguageAcquisitionOxfordUniversity

Press

霍凱特（Hockett）索振羽葉蜚聲譯1990

《現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程》北京大學(xué)出版社

苓麒祥1988《語(yǔ)言學(xué)史概要》北京大

學(xué)出版社

劉潤(rùn)清1999《西方語(yǔ)言學(xué)流派》外語(yǔ)

教學(xué)與研究出版社

許嘉璐等1996《中國(guó)語(yǔ)言學(xué)現(xiàn)狀與展望》

外語(yǔ)教學(xué)與研究出版社

王鋼1992《普通語(yǔ)言學(xué)基礎(chǔ)》湖南

教育出版社

何自然1992《語(yǔ)用學(xué)概論》湖南教育出

版社

黃國(guó)文1992《語(yǔ)篇分析概要》湖南教育

出版社

桂詩(shī)春1992《應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)》湖南教育出

版社

Lecturer:TianJinping

PeriodofLearning:16weeks

Evaluation:Studentswillbeaskedtotake

partinatestandwriteashortpaperonany

topicoflinguistics

ChapterOneTheStudyoflinguistics

1.WhyStudyLinguisticsandWhatis

Linguistics

Linguisticscanbedefinedasthe

scientific(systematic)studyoflanguage

(languagesofallhumansociety).Ittriesto

answerthebasicquestions“Whatis

language?”,Howdoeslanguagework?,It

probesintovariousaspectsoftheproblems

suchaswhatdoalllanguageshaveincommon

(thenatureoflanguage);whatrangeof

variationisfoundamonglanguages

(comparativestudyoflanguage);whydo

languageschange(historicstudyoflanguage);

Towhatextentaresocialclassdifference

reflectedinlanguages(socio-linguistics);how

doesachildlearntospeak(language

acquisition—FlandF2)andsoon.

2.1slinguisticsascience?

Basedonsystematicinvestigationofdata,

conductedwithreferencetosomegeneral

theoryoflanguagestructure.Linguistics

seekstodescribe,explainandanalyse

language.

1)exhaustiveness2)consistency3)

economy4)objectivity

3.OriginTheoriginoflanguage

。Thedivine-origintheory

。Theinventiontheory

。Theevolutionarytheory

4.WhatisLanguageandDesignFeaturesof

Language

*Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocal

symbolsusedforhumancommunication.

。Arbitrariness

。Duality

。Productivity(creativity)

。Displacement

。Culturaltransmission

。Interchangeability

5.PerspectivesofLanguageStudies

。Languageasinnatehumanknowledge

。Languageasfixedcode

?Languageasasystem

?LanguageasInteraction

6.TheoriesoftheFunctionsofLanguage

。Jakobson'sClassification

1).Referentialfunction

2).Emotivefunction

3).Poeticfunction

4).Conativefunction

5).Phaticfunction

6).Metalingualfunction

?Halliday'stheoryofMetafunctions

1).Ideationalfunction

2).Interpersonalfunction

3).Textualfunction

7.Functionsoflanguage

。Referentialfuction

。Interpersonalfunction

。Performativefunction

*Emotivefunction

。Phaticfunction

。Recreationalfunction

。Metalingualfunction

8.Somebasicdistinctionsinlinguistics

OGeneralvs.particular

*Theoreticalvs.applied

。Speechvs.writing

。Descriptivevs.prescriptive

。Synchronicvs.diachronic

。Languevs.parole

*Competencevs.performance

。Linguisticpotentialvs.actuallinguistic

behaviour

?Eticvs.Emic

*Formalismvs.Functionalism

9.Majorbranchesofgenerallinguistics

?Phonetics

?Phonology

?Morphology

?Syntax

。Semantics

。Pragmatics

10.Applicationoflinguistics

。Linguisticsandlanguage

teaching--appliedlinguistics

。Linguisticsandsociety—socio-linguistics

*Linguisticsandliterature-stylistic

linguistics

。Linguisticsand

psychology---psycholinguistics

11.DataofLinguistics

12.StatusandProspectofLinguistics

a)Intheaspectofstudytarget

。Fromthestudyofmicrolinguisticsto

macrolinguistics

。Fromthestudyofstructureoflanguageto

functionandapplicationoflanguage

。Fromthestudyofasinglelanguageto

comparativestudyoflanguages

b)Intheaspectofstudymethod

。Fromdeductivetoinductive(empirical

study)andtodeductive-inductive

。Fromthestudyofasinglelevel,single

angle,staticstudytomulti-level,

multi-angle,dynamicstudy.

。Fromhandworktomachine

c)Intheaspectofstudypurpose

?Fromnarrowtowide

*Fromdescriptiontoexplanation

。Fromtheoreticalexplorationtoapplied

value

ChapterThreeTheStudyofSpeech

Sounds

SectionI.Phonetics

l.ThedefinitionofPhonetics

。Phoneticsisthesciencewhichstudiesthe

production,transmissionandreceptionof

thesoundsofhumanspeech,andprovides

methodsfortheirdescription,

classificationandtranscription.

。Articulatoryphonetics

?Acousticphonetics

。Auditoryphonetics

?Phoneticsvs.phonology:Phonetics

studiestheconcretearticulatory,acoustic,

andauditorycharacteristicsofallthe

possiblesoundsofalllanguages(material

aspectsofsounds).Phonologyis

concernedwithsemanticallyrelevant

speechsounds.Phoneticsisnotrestricted

toaparticularlanguage.Itstudiesthe

speechsoundsinallhumanlanguage.

Phonologyistodescribethechoosingof

soundsinhuman'scommunication.It

studiesthesoundsystemofaparticular

languageorlanguagevariety.

2.Thevocalorgans

。Theinitiatoroftheair-stream-the

lung

?Thevibrator——vocalcords

。Theresonator——theresonating

cavities

?Thepharynx

?Thenasalcavity

?Theoralcavity:lips;teeth;alveolar

ridge;hardpalate;softpalate;uvula;

pharynx;epiglottis（會(huì)魘）

（o）esophagus（食道）

3.Segmentsanddivergences

。Segments

Anylinguisticunitinasequencewhich

maybeisolatedfromtherestofthe

sequence,asoundinanutteranceora

letterinawrittentext.

。Divergences---thechangingformor

variety---thedifferencebetweensound

andsymbol.Fish-ghotiVowelSplit

andVowelmerger.

4.Phonetictranscription

。Theinternationalphoneticalphabet(IPA)

asystemofsymbolsforrepresentingthe

pronunciationofsoundsinanylanguage

accordingtotheprinciplesofthe

InternationalPhoneticAssociation.This

systemconsistsoflettersanddiacritics.

SomelettersaretakenfromtheRoman

alphabetlike/p/,/e/,/n/andsomeare

specialsymbolssuchaso9.

?Narrowandbroadtranscriptions

Broadtranscriptionhassuchsymbols,

eachofwhichrepresentsaphoneme.This

formoftranscriptionissuitablefor

teachingthepronunciationofaforeign

language.

Narrowtranscriptionhasmoreexact

symbolsanddiacritics,eachofwhichis

employedtorepresentthevariantofa

phoneme.

5.Classificationofsounds

。Consonants

?Placesofarticulation

/Bilabial

/Labiodental

/Dental

/Alveolar

/Palato-alveolar(postalveolar)

/Palatal

/Velar

/Uvular

/Glottal

?Mannersofarticulation

/Stop(plosive)

/Fricative

/Approximant

/Lateral

/Retroflex

/Affricates

/Nasal

?Voicing

?Classificationofconsonants

?Vowels

?Cardinalvowels

?Cardinalvowel:

vowelinthecardinalvowelsysteminvented

byDanielJonesasameansofdescribingthe

vowelsinanylanguage.Thecardinalvowels

themselvesdonotbelongtoanyparticular

language,butarepossiblevowelstobeused

asreferencepoints.

?Theclassificationofvowels

/Thepartofthetonguethatis

raised--front,center,back

/Theextenttowhichthetongue

rises---highmid(mid-highmid-low)

low

/Theshapeofthemouth-roundingor

spreading

/Oralornasalized

/Glidevowels

Diphthongs

Triphthongs

?6.ReceivedPronunciation(RP):

Theform(variety)ofpronunciationthatis

usuallyheardineverydayspeechamong

theSouthernEnglishpeople,particularly

theLondonmiddleclass,orthespeech

spokenbyBBCannouncers,atuniversities

andpublicschools.RPisreadilyand

widelyunderstoodthroughouttheEnglish

speakingcountriesandgenerally

recommendedwhereEnglishistaughtand

learnedasaforeignlanguage.

7.GeneralAmericanPronunciation

SectionII.Phonology

1.Phonology:isthestudyofthesoundsystems

oflanguages.Phonologyisconcernedwith

thelinguisticpatterningofsoundsinhuman

languages,thatis,todeterminethe

phonologicalstructure--whichsoundunits

areusedandhowtheypattern.

/Toidentifythephonemesinacertain

language

/Tofindoutinwhatwaythephonemes

canbecombined

2.MinimalPair

Twoexpressions(wordsormorphemes)ofa

languagewithdifferentmeaningsthatare

distinguishedbyonlyonephoneme:fathervs.

mother;petvs.bet

3.Phoneme(distinctiveness):thesmallestunit

ofspeechsoundinalanguagewiththe

significantfunctiontodistinguishthe

meaningsandformsofwords.

。Allophone:variantsofaphoneme.

Allophonesofaphonemeisbasedontheir

distribution(complementarydistribution)

andtheirphoneticsimilarity:pot[ph]vs.

spot[p']lettervs.bottle

*Phone:smallestunitwhenautteranceis

segmented.

。Contrastivedistribution(phoneme)

。Complementarydistribution(phonetic

similarity)

4.Suprasegmentalphonology

?Syllable

?Onset

?Peak

?Coda

?Stress

?Wordstress

>Primarystress,secondarystress,weak

stresspronunciation,university

>Rhythmicalstress(doublestress)this

afternoon,anafternoonlesson;Heis

fourteen,Wehavefourteenboys;Welive

inBeijing,Beijingopera

Stressonsuffix:employeeengineer

ballooncartoon

>Compoundstress:blackboard

bluebookdarkroom'English

teacher(whoteachesEnglish)

Redcoatsvs.redcoatsblackbirdvs.

blackbird

Whitehousevs.WhiteHouse

greenbeltvs.greenbeltgreenhousevs.

greenhouse

bluejacketvs.bluejacket

?SentencestressStressingoncontent

words

Iwillgo.Idon'tgothere.

Flyingplanescanbedangerous.

JohnonlyphonedMarytoday.

。Pitch(tonetone-language)

。Intonation

。Liaisonandassimilation

Didyousay“announce"?Didyousay

“anounce”?

Thereisanicepearonthetable.Thereisa

nicepearonthetable.

Thatisanaim.Thatisaname.

Rhythm

。Tempo

。Pause

?Range

ChapterThreeMorphology

1.Wordandthreesensesofword

/Aphysicallydefinableunit

/Thecommonfactorunderlyingasetof

forms

Lexeme:thesmallestunitinthemeaning

systemofalanguagethatcanbe

distinguishedfromothersimilarunits.

/Agrammaticalunit

2.Classificationofwords

/Variablewordsandinvariablewords

/Grammaticalwordsandlexicalwords

/Closed-classwordsandopen-classwords

/Wordclass(partofspeech)

令Particles(小品詞)

令A(yù)uxiliaries(助詞)

令Pro-form(pro-words)

令Determiners(pre-determiner;central

determiner;post-determiner)

3.Morphology

Morphology:studiestheinternalstructureof

words,andtherulesbywhichwordsare

formed.

4.Morpheme

Thesmallestmeaningfulunitinalanguage

5.Typesofmorphemes

/Freemorphemeandboundmorpheme

/Root,affixandstem

/Inflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix

6.InflectionalMorphologyvs.Lexical

(derivational)Morphology

7.Inflection

/Number

/Person,finitenessandaspect

/case

8.Morphemeandallomorph

9.Wordformation

/Compound

/Derivation

10.Lexicalchange

/Wordchange(Orthographiclevel)

令VideotapeAIDSSARSNATO

OPECAPECUNESCOH-bomb

hippies

令I(lǐng)nvention:KodakCoke(coca-cola)nylon

令Blending:smogboatelmotel

brunchdigicom

令A(yù)bbreviation:adbikeplan

flu(influenza)fridgeairconrep

令A(yù)cronym:CIAWTOWHO

令Borrowing

/Phonologicalchange

/Morph-syntacticchange

令Morphologicalchange:doethgoeth

wee

令Syntacticalchange

/Semanticchange

ChapterFourSyntax

1.Definition:

2.Thetraditionalapproach

/Theclassificationofwordsintermof

partsofspeech

/Thefunctionsofwordsintermofthe

placesinasentence

/category:thecombinationofpartof

speechandfunction

A）nouncategories:

?number——singularorplural

?gender

?case

nominative（主格）vocative（呼格）

accusative（賓格）genitive（屬格）

dative（與格間接賓語(yǔ)）ablative（離

格）

B）verbcategories

tenseandaspect

C）concordandgovernment

3.Thestructuralapproach

?Syntagmaticandparadigmaticrelations

?Immediateconstituentanalysis

andexocentric

subordinatecoordinate

4.Thegenerativeapproach

1).SomebasicAssumption

令GenerativeGrammarandChomsky

■Chomsky--Americanlinguist,learnt

linguistics,maths,philosophyandlogic

whilelearningatcollegewhichlaida

greatfoundationforhislaterstudy.

■BackgroundforTG

?Philosophicalbackground

?Naturalscientificbackground

?Linguisticbackground

令E-languageandI-language

■E-language——theexternal,observed

languagespecifiedinextension,asetof

sentencesanativespeakercoulduse.

■I-language——theinternal,individual

intensionallinguisticsystembywhich

E-languageisderived;thecognitive

systeminternalizedwithinhumanbrain.

■Theultimategoalofgenerativegrammar

istocharacterizethenatureofthe

internalizedlinguisticsystem.Notto

describethenaturallanguagebutto

explainlanguage.

令Criteriaofadequacy

■Descriptiveadequacy

■Explanatoryadequacy

令DevelopmentofGenerativeGrammar:

threetheoreticalmodels

■PhraseStructureRules

■LexicalProjection

■MinimalistApproach

2).PhraseStructureGrammar

Rule-Generativelanguage:

■E={a,b}Z*={a,b}*

■Palindromes:Otto—?IsawElba----S

aSa/bSbdeedlevel

令Contextfreephrasestructurerules

■G=(S,T,E,P)S=anarbitrarysentence

T=asetpfvariablesornonterminal

synbols;i.e.grammaticalcategoryE=a

setofterminalsymbols(lexicon)P=aset

ofproductions--grammaticalrules

?1----krl=nonterminalr=terminal

ornon-terminalsymbols

?S->NPAuxVP

?NP—>DetN

?VP--AdvVNP

■DerivationTree;Nodes;motherand

daughternodes;sisternodes

DETNTV

Thebabypastsleep

令PhraseStructureRulesrefertothebase

componentofTGGrammar.Thebase

componentgeneratesthebasicsentence

patterns(deepstructure)ofalanguage;the

transformationalcomponenttransforms

theseintosentences.

Thebasecomponentconsistsofasetof

rules(phrasestructurerulesorrewrite

rules)andavocabularylist

令Transformation

■Phrasestructurerulesgeneratethe

KernelStringordeepstructureofa

sentence

■Transformationrules----surface

structure:Ruleswhichchangeabasic

syntacticstructure(basecomponent)into

asentence-likestructure

令Subcategorization

■Categorieslikenoun,verb,adjective,

adverbarenotadequatetogeneratea

correctsentence.Alltheinformationofa

wordshouldbetakenintoconsideration

——subcategorialproperties.

■Paris[+N,Proper]News[+N,-Proper,

-count,-Plural]

■put[+V,_NPPP]tell[+V,_NPNP,_

NPPP]one-placepredicate,two-place

predicate,three-placepredicate

die[NP]

hit[NPoNP1]

go[NPPP]

give[NPoNP1PP]

3).ProjectionfromLexicon

令Projectionprinciple

■Syntacticstructureisdeterminedbythe

idiosyncraticpropertiesofthelexical

item-----?Projectionprinciple:

representationateachsyntacticlevel(LF

(logicalform),D-andS-Structure)are

projectedfromthelexicon,inthatthey

observethesubcategorisationproperties

oflexicalitems.

■Lexicalitems(likeatomicelements,

calledprimes原始詞)--k(to

formlargerunitsbasedonthelexical

informationofthewords)D-Structure

(applythetransformationalrules)-----kS-

Structure(phoneticformandlogicform)

■Twogroupsoflexicon:thelexical

categories(verb,adj,noun,proposition)

andfunctionalcategories(particles,aux,

determiners,pronoun)

令TheExtendedProjectionPrinciple

■Allclauseshaveasubject

■Lexicalrequirementsandstructural

requirementsmustbeuniformlysatisfied

atallsyntacticlevels.

A

/

NPA

VNP

JohnmarriedJane

令A(yù)djunction

NP—

Y，NP

WeVeveryday

eat

VP

~~~

NP

-

人Nf

WeVeveryday

eatanapple

specifierheaccomplementadjunct(modifier)

令X-barschema

P

■ExtendingX-barSchematoFunctional

Categories(ICD)

令Theta-theory

■TheTheta-Theory,or。-Theory,is

devisedtodealwiththecomplicated

relationbetweenanargumentandthe

thematicrole(orsemanticfunction)the

argumentplaysinrelationtoits

predicate.

■0-Theorydealswiththeseveralaspects

assemanticrelation,logicrelation,

lexicalrelation,andsyntacticrelation.It

studiesthecomplicatedrelationamong

meaning,vocabularyandsyntactic

position.

■Johnopenedthedoor.Butnot*Thedoor

openedJohn.

■Categoryselection(c-selection)

Astheprojectionrulesshowsthat

“open"presupposetwoarguments:open

[NP_NP],italsopresupposeone

argument:open[NP—]Likethedoor

opened.

■Semanticselection(s-selection)

Averbdoesnotonlyselecttheright

syntacticcategorytofillanargument

position,italsoneedstoassigntheright

semanticfunctionorthematicrole,to

eachNPargumentittakes.

Eg.open[NP_]<Patient>Thedooropened.

Open[NPo_NP1]<Agent,Patient>John

openedthedoor.

■Theta-roles

Agent施事者Patient/theme承受者（受事者）

Experiencer感受者Recipient接受者Goal

受詞/目的格

■0-Criterion:Eachargumentcanonlytakeone

thematic-roleasitsuniquevalue.

Theta-roleDefinitionExample

AgentDoerorinstigatorofThegirlkissedherdoll

someaction

Patient/themeEntityundergoingThestonerolleddownthehill

theeffectofsome

action

ExperiencerEntityexperiencingIlovethisgame

somepsychological

state

RecipientEntityreceivingorJohngaveMaryabook

possessingsome

entity

GoalEntitytowardsLet'sgohome

whichsomething

moves

令Movementandtrace

4）.TheMinimalistApproach

令Merge/Move

令Minimizingtobareessentials

令Checkingandcheckingtheory

令VPshells

?Universalgrammar

?Deepandsurfacestructure

?Generativecomponent

?Transformationalcomponent

5.Thefunctionalapproach

?Functionalsentenceperspective

Themeandrheme

?Systemic-functionalgrammar

ChomskyandTransformational-Generative

Grammar（喬姆斯基）

Chomsky'sTransformational-Generative

Grammarhasbeenregardedbysomelinguists

asarevolutioninlinguistics:

FourStagesofT-Ggrammar:

1)Logicalstructureoflinguistic

theory(1950-1965)——tomakelinguisticsa

science

。TheLogicalStructureofLinguistic

Theory(語(yǔ)言理論的邏輯結(jié)構(gòu))

?SyntacticStructure(句法結(jié)構(gòu))

2)StandardTheory(1965-1970)(標(biāo)準(zhǔn)理論時(shí)

期)

?AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax(句法理

論若干問(wèn)題)

3)ExtendedStandardTheory(擴(kuò)充式---)

?ReflectionsonLanguage(對(duì)語(yǔ)言的思

考)

4)Languageuniversalsanduniversalgrammar

MajorContribution:

1.Universalgrammar(languageacquisition

device)(innatenessorinnatisthypothesis)

。Atheorywhichclaimstoaccountfor

thegrammaticalcompetenceofevery

adultnomatterwhatlanguageheorshe

speaks.Itclaimsthateveryspeaker

knowsasetofprincipleswhichapplyto

alllanguagesandalsoasetofparameters

thatcanvaryfromonelanguageto

another,butonlywithincertainlimits.

。Innatisthypothesis:Childrenarebom

withtheabilitytospeak(LADlanguage

acquisitiondevice)——borninthemindat

birthratherthanfromtheenvironment

2.Deepstructureandsurfacestructure

Eachsentencewas(inthebeginningperiod)

seentohavetwolevelsofstructure.The

surfacestructureisthesyntacticstructure

ofthesentencewhichapersonspeaks,

hears.Thedeepstructureismuchmore

abstractandisconsideredtobeinthe

speaker'swriter'shearer'smind

Thenewspaperwasnotdeliveredtoday

(negative)someone(pasttense)deliverthe

newspapertoday(passive)

3.Phrasestructurerules

ThepartinT-GGrammardealingwith

syntaxisdividedintotwocomponents:the

basecomponentandthetransformational

component.Thebasecomponentgenerates

thebasicsentencepatternsofalanguage;

thetransformationalcomponenttransforms

theseintosentences.

Thebasecomponentconsistsofasetof

rules(phrasestructurerulesorrewrite

rules)andavocabularylist

s

NP/、VP

DETNT

V

Thebabypast

sleep

4.Transformationalrules

Ruleswhichchangeabasicsyntactic

structure(basecomponent)intoasentence-

likestructure

ChapterSixFunctionalSyntax

1.HistoricalviewonLanguage

ProtagorasPlatoAristotle

2.StudiesonFunctionofLanguage

PragueSchoolVilemMathesius

RomanJakobson

LondonSchool

令PragueSchool:

■Structural-functionalViewofLanguage

?Emphasizingtheimportanceof

synchronicstudyoflanguagewhile

payingattentiontodiachronicstudy.

?Languageisasystem,nota

combinationofisolatedphenomenon.

Understandingalanguagecomponent

involvesconsideringtherelationship

betweenthecomponents.

?Languageisatoolfor

communication,atoolforthinking.

?Toanalyzethefunctionoflanguage,

linguistsshouldtakebothwrittenform

andspokenformoflanguageinto

consideration.

■PhonemicContrast

Themostimportantcontributionto

linguisticsmadebyPragueSchoolisthe

distinctionbetweenPhoneticsand

Phonology.AccordingtoPragueSchool,a

phoneislikeparoleandaphonemeislike

langue.

令VilemMathesius(life-longChairmanofthe

Praguelinguistscircle)

■SubjectPredicationObject

Subject-predicaterelations

Object-predicaterelations

■Functionalsentenceperspective(句子的

實(shí)際切分；句子功能展示成份；句子功

能觀)

?句子功能展示成份簡(jiǎn)單地說(shuō)，就是

用信息論的原理來(lái)分析話語(yǔ)或文句，

測(cè)量一句話的各個(gè)部分對(duì)全句意義

?Atypeoflinguisticanalysis

associatedwiththePragueSchool

whichdescribeshowinformationis

distributedinsentences.FSPdeals

particularlywiththeeffectofthe

distributionofGiveninformationand

Newinformationindiscourse.The

knowninformation(thetheme)refers

totheinformationthatisknowntothe

readerorlistener.Therhemerefersto

informationthatisnew.

?Threecomponentsanalysis

?ThemeTransitionRheme

?Twocomponentsanalysis

?ThemeRheme

?Hehasfallenill

令FrantisekDanes(Czechlinguist)

■AThree-levelApproachtosyntax

?Thegrammaticallevel

?Thesemanticlevel

?Theorganizationallevel

3.Halliday

令I(lǐng)deational,Interpersonal,Textual

■Ideational

Ideationalfunction——istoconveynew

information,tocommunicateacontentthat

isunknowntothehearer;toreflectwhat

happensinthesubjectiveandobjective

world.——toorganizethespeaker'sor

writer'sexperienceoftherealorimaginary

world.

■Interpersonal

Interpersonalfunction——useoflanguage

toexpresssocialandpersonal

relations-thewaysthespeakerperformsa

speechact.Moodandmodalitycanrealize

thisfunction.Speechrolesarealso

reflectedthroughformsofaddress,speech

function.

■Textual

Textualfunction——anystretchofspoken

andwrittendiscourseismadeintoa

coherentandunifiedtextandmakealiving

messagedifferentfromarandomlistof

sentences.

令Transitivity

■Intraditionalgrammar,transitivityrefers

tothestateofbeingatransitiveverb——a

verbwhichtakesanobject

■Insystemic-functionalgrammar,

transitivityreferstoachoicebetweenthe

threemainprocessesthatcanbe

representedinasentence.Itisrelatedto

thechoiceofparticipantsandthechoice

ofcircumstancesandwhichrolesthe

participantshadintheprocessandhow

processes,participants,and

circumstancesarecombined.

■Ideationalfunctionoflanguage---

Languageenableshumanbeingstobuild

amentalpictureofreality,tomakesense

ofwhatgoesonaroundthemandinside

them.Thegrammaticalsystembywhich

thisisachievedistransitivity.The

transitivityconstruestheworldof

experienceintoamanageablesetof

processtypes.

■Threetypesofprocesses:

?Materialprocess---Theprocessof

doing.

Asahumanbeing,wehavebothouter

andinnerexperience.Theouter

experienceisthatofactionsandevents:

thingshappen,andpeopleorotheractors

dothingsormakethem

happen.---materialprocess.Theboy

kickedtheball.

?Mentalprocess---processofsensing

Theinnerexperience---akindofreplyof

theouter,recordingit,reactingtoit,

reflectingonit,anawarenessofourstate

ofbeing.

Themanlikedthenewhouse.

?Relationalprocess-processofbeing

Welearntogeneralize,torelateone

fragmentofexperiencetoanother:this

thesameasthat,thisisakindofthe

other-processofclassifyingand

identifying.Thechildishomeless.

?Behavioralprocess--physiological

andpsychologicalbehavior

Itreferstotheborderlinebetween

materialandmentalprocesses--those

thatrepresentoutermanifestationof

innerworkings,thea