英語國家概況復(fù)習(xí)筆記

FinalapprovaldraftonNovember22,2020FinalapprovaldraftonNovember22,2020英語國家概況復(fù)習(xí)筆記英語國家概況復(fù)習(xí)筆記Chapter1LandandPeople英國的國土與人民DifferentNamesforBritainanditsParts英國的不同名稱及其各組成部分1.Geographicalnames:theBritishIsles,GreatBritainandEngland.地理名稱:不列顛群島,大不列顛和英格蘭.2.Officialname:theUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland.官方正式名稱:大不列顛及北愛爾蘭聯(lián)合王國.3.TheBritishIslesaremadeupoftwolargeislands—GreatBritain(thelargerone)andIreland,andhundredsofsmallones.不列顛群島由兩個大島［大不列顛島（較大的一個）和愛爾蘭島］及成千上萬個小島組成.4.ThreepoliticaldivisionsontheislandofGreatBritain:England,ScotlandandWales.大不列顛島上有三個政區(qū):英格蘭,蘇格蘭和威爾士.①EnglandisinthesouthernpartofGreatBritain.Itisthelargest,mostpopuloussection.位于大不列顛島南部,是最大,人口最稠密的地區(qū).②ScotlandisinthenorthofGreatBritain.Ithasthreenaturalzones(theHighlandsinthenorth;theCentrallowlands;thesouthUplands)Capital:Edinburgh.蘇格蘭位于大不列顛的北部.它有三大自然區(qū)：北部高地,中部低地及南部山陵.首府：愛丁堡.③WalesisinthewestofGreatBritain.Capital:Cardiff威爾士位于大不列顛的西部.首府：加的夫④NorthernIrelandisthefourthregionoftheUK.Capital:Belfast.北愛爾蘭是英國第四個區(qū)域.首府：貝爾法斯特5.TheCommonwealth(ofnations)isafreeassociationofindependentcountriesthatwereoncecoloniesofBritain.Membernationsarejoinedtogethereconomicallyandhavecertaintradingagreements.TheCommonwealthhasnospecialpowers.ThedecisiontobecomeamemberoftheCommonwealthislefttoeachnation.Itwasfoundedin1931,andhas50membercountriesuntil1991.英聯(lián)邦是一個自由聯(lián)合體,由曾是英國殖民地而現(xiàn)在已經(jīng)獨(dú)立的國家構(gòu)成.成員國之間實行經(jīng)濟(jì)合作,有一定的貿(mào)易協(xié)議.英聯(lián)邦沒有特別的權(quán)利,是否參加英聯(lián)邦由各成員國自己決定.它成立于1931年,到1991年止已有50個成員國.Chapter2TheOriginsofaNation(5000BC-1066)英國的起源1.ArrivalandsettlementoftheCeltsAtabout700BCtheCeltsbegantoarriveinBritainandkeptcominguntilthearrivaloftheRomans.TheymaycomeoriginallyfromeasternandcentralEurope,nowFrance,BelgiumandsouthernGermany.約公元前700年,凱爾特人來到不列顛島并一直陸續(xù)到來直到羅馬人的入侵.他們可能源自東歐和中歐,即現(xiàn)在的法國,比利時和德國南部.Theycameinthreemainwaves:theGaels~about600BC;theBrythons~about400BC;theBelgae~about150BC.凱爾特人來到不列顛有三次高潮:第一次是約公元前600年的蓋爾人;第二次是約公元前400年的布立吞人;第三次是約公元前150年的貝爾蓋人.TheCeltictribesaretheancestorsoftheHighlandScots,theIrishandtheWelsh,andtheirlanguagesarethebasisofbothWelshandGaelic.凱爾特人是山地蘇格蘭人,愛爾蘭人和威爾士人的祖先,他們的語言是威爾士語和蓋爾語的基礎(chǔ).TheCelts’religionwasDruidism.凱爾特人的宗教為德魯伊德教.TheBelgaewerethemostindustriousandvigorousoftheCeltictribes.貝爾蓋人是最勤奮,最精力充沛的.TheCeltswerepractisedfarmers.凱爾特人是有經(jīng)驗的農(nóng)民.2.BasisofmodernEnglishrace:theAnglo-Saxons現(xiàn)代英國人的基礎(chǔ):盎格魯—薩克遜(446-871)Inthemid-5thcenturyJutes,Saxons,andAnglescametoBritain.TheywerethreeTeutonictribes.TheJutes,whofishedandfarmedinJutland(nowsouthernDenmark),cametoBritainfirst.ThentheSaxonscame.TheycamefromnorthernGermany,establishedtheirkingdomsinEssex,SussexandWessex.Inthesecondhalfofthe6thcentury,theAngleswhoalsocamefromnorthernGermanyandweretogivetheirnametotheEnglishpeople,settledinEastAnglia,MerciaandNorthumbria.五世紀(jì)中葉,朱特人,撒克遜人和盎格魯人來到不列顛島.這是三支日耳曼部落.居住在朱特蘭島(現(xiàn)丹麥南部)從事打漁農(nóng)耕的朱特人先到達(dá)不列顛;接著是撒克遜人,他們來自德國北部,在埃塞克斯,蘇塞克斯和威塞克斯建立了王國;六世紀(jì)后半葉,同樣來自德國北部把自己名字給了英國人的盎格魯人,在東盎格利亞,麥西亞以及諾森伯利來定居.Heptarchy:DuringtheAnglo-Saxon’stime,Britainwasdividedintomanykingdoms,amongwhichthereweresevenprincipalkingdomsofKent,Essex,Sussex,Wessex,EastAnglia,MerciaandNorthumbria.TheyweregiventhenameforHeptarchy.在盎格魯-撒克遜時期,英國被劃分為許多王國,其中有七個主要王國:肯特,埃塞克斯,蘇塞克斯,威塞克斯,東盎格利亞,麥西亞和諾森伯利來.他們被合稱為七王國.TheAnglo-Saxontribeswereconstantlyatwarwithoneanother,eachtryingtogettheupperhand,sothatthekingdomswereoftenbrokenupandoftenpiecedtogetheragain.盎格魯-撒克遜部落之間不斷交戰(zhàn),彼此都想占上風(fēng),因此王國總是分了合,合了又分TheAnglo-SaxonsbroughttheirownTeutonicreligiontoBritain.盎格魯—撒克遜人把日耳曼宗教帶到了英國.AlthoughtheAnglo-Saxonswereferociouspeople,theylaidthefoundationsoftheEnglishstate.Firstly,theydividedthecountryintoshires;Secondly,theydevisedthenarrow-strip,three-fieldfarmingsystemwhichcontinuedtothe18thcentury;Thirdly,theyalsoestablishedthemanorialsystem.Finally,theycreatedtheWitan(council/meetingofwisemen)toadvisetheking,thebasisofthePrivyCouncilwhichstillexiststoday.雖然盎格魯-撒克遜人是兇猛的民族,但他們?yōu)橛鴩业男纬纱蛳铝嘶A(chǔ).首先他們把國家劃分為郡;其次他們設(shè)計的窄條三圃田農(nóng)耕制延用至18世紀(jì);他們還建立了采邑制;最后他們還創(chuàng)立了議會(賢人會議),向國王提供建議,這是現(xiàn)存的樞密院的基礎(chǔ).3.TheVikingandDanishinvasionsTheNorwegianVikingsandtheDanesattackedvariouspartsofEnglandfromtheendofthe8thcentury.TheDanesgainedcontrolofthenorthandeastofEngland—theDanelaw.從8世紀(jì)末起,挪威海盜和丹麥人就不斷襲擊英格蘭各地方.丹麥人控制英格蘭北部和東部丹麥法區(qū).AfterAlfred’sdeath,hissuccessorsreconqueredtheDanelaw.KingEthelredtheUnreadytriedpayingtheinvaderstostayaway.ButtheDanesdidn’tgoawaybutinvadeagain.亞爾弗雷德死后,他的繼任者們重新征服了丹麥地區(qū)."未準(zhǔn)備好者"埃塞爾雷德國王進(jìn)貢給丹麥人以免被侵略,但丹麥人又再度進(jìn)犯.AfterEthelred’sdeath,Canute,theDanishleaderwasmadeEnglishkingin1016.Heprovedtobeawiseruler.Afterhisdeathin1035,hissonsHaroldandHardicanutereignedsuccessively.AfterHardicanute’sdeaththesuccessionpassedtothesuccessorEdwardtheConfessor.埃塞爾雷德死后,丹麥?zhǔn)最I(lǐng)喀奴特在1016年成為了英國國王.他是位英明的通知者.1035年他死后,他的兒子哈羅德和哈迪喀奴特先后統(tǒng)治王國.哈迪喀奴特死后,王位傳給了"懺悔者"愛德華.4.KingAlfredandhiscontributions亞爾弗雷德國王和他所做出的貢獻(xiàn)(849-899)①AlfredwasthekingofWessexanddefeatedtheDanesandreachedafriendlyagreementwiththemin879亞爾弗雷德是威塞克斯的國王.他打敗了丹麥人,并于公元879年與他們達(dá)成了友好協(xié)議;②Hefoundedastrongfleetandisknownas“thefatheroftheBritishnavy”他因為建立了強(qiáng)大艦隊,而以“英國海軍之父”聞名于世;③HereorganizedtheSaxonarmy,makingitmoreefficient他改組了撒克遜軍隊,使之更為高效;④HeissaidtohavetaughthimselfLatinandtranslatedaLatinbookintoEnglish據(jù)說他自學(xué)了拉丁語并將一本拉丁語書譯成英語⑤Heencouragedlearninginothers,establishedschoolsandformulatedalegalsystem.Allthisearnshimthetitle“AlfredtheGreat”他鼓勵向他人求知并修建學(xué)校,并且制訂法律制度.5.TheNormanConquestanditsconsequences諾曼征服及其影響(1066)ItwassaidthatkingEdwardhadpromisedtheEnglishthronetoWilliam,buttheWitanchoseHaroldasking.SoWilliamledhisarmytoinvadeEngland.InOctober1066,WilliamdefeatedHaroldinthebattleofHastings.OnChristmasDayWilliamwascrownedkingofEnglandinWestminsterAbbey.據(jù)說愛德華國王曾答應(yīng)把英格蘭王位傳給諾曼底公爵威廉,但是賢人會議挑選了哈羅德為國王.公元1066年10月,在哈斯丁斯戰(zhàn)役中威廉打敗了哈羅德軍隊.圣誕節(jié)這天在威斯敏斯特大教堂,威廉被加冕為英格蘭國王.TheNormanConquestof1066isperhapsthebest-knowneventinEnglishhistory.WilliamtheConquerorconfiscatedalmostallthelandandgaveittohisNormanfollowers.HereplacedtheweakSaxonrulewithastrongNormangovernment.TheNormanConquestendedtheEnglishhistoryofbeinginvaded,thefeudalsystemwascompletelyestablishedinEngland.RelationswiththeContinentwereopened,andcivilizationandcommercewereextended.Norman-Frenchculture,language,mannersandarchitecturewereintroduced.TheChurchwasbroughtintocloserconnectionwithRome,andthechurchcourtswereseparatedfromthecivilcourts.公元1066年的諾曼征服也許是英國歷史上的最著名事件.征服者威廉沒收了幾乎所有土地,將其分發(fā)給他的諾曼追隨者.他用強(qiáng)大的諾曼政府取代軟弱的撒克遜人統(tǒng)治.諾曼征服結(jié)束了被侵略的英國歷史,英格蘭完全確立了封建制度:擴(kuò)展了與歐洲大陸的關(guān)系;文明和商業(yè)都得到發(fā)展;引進(jìn)了諾曼—法國文化、語言、舉止和建筑.教會與羅馬的聯(lián)系更為密切,教會法庭從世俗法庭中單獨(dú)分離出來.Chapter3TheShapingoftheNation英國的形成（公元1066-1381）1.England'sfeudalismundertheruleofWilliamtheConqueror在威廉統(tǒng)治下的英國封建制度①UnderWilliam,thefeudalsysteminEnglandwascompletelyestablished在威廉統(tǒng)治下,英國的封建制度得到完全確立;②Inthissystem,theKingownedallthelandpersonally根據(jù)此制度,國王擁有全國所有土地;③WilliamgavehisbaronslargeestatesinEnglandinreturnforapromiseofmilitaryserviceandaproportionoftheland’sproduce威廉把英國的大片土地分給貴族,條件是貴族保證服役和交租;④Theseestateswerescatteredfarandwideoverthecountry,sothatthosewhoheldthemcouldnoteasilycombinetorebeltheking貴族的這些地產(chǎn)分散于各處,這樣土地?fù)碛姓呔筒灰茁?lián)合起來反叛國王;⑤Thebaronsparceledouthislandtothelessernobles,knightsandfreemen,alsoinreturnforgoodsandservices貴族又把土地分配給小貴族,騎士和自由民,同樣要他們交租和服役;⑥Atthebottomofthefeudalscalewerethevilleinsorserfs在封建等級底層的是農(nóng)奴;⑦OnepeculiarfeatureofthefeudalsystemofEnglandwasthatalllandownersmusttaketheoathofallegiance,notonlytotheirimmediatelord,butalsototheking英國封建制獨(dú)有的特色就是,無論是土地承租人還是二佃戶,都必須要宣誓效忠于直接領(lǐng)主,而且要效忠于國王.WilliamreplacedtheWitanwiththeGrandCouncil.威廉用大議會取代了賢人會議.Inordertohaveareliablerecordofallhislands,histenantsandtheirpossessions,WilliamsenthisclerkstocompileapropertyrecordknownasDomesdayBook,whichwascompletedin1086.為了使所有的土地,佃戶和他們的財產(chǎn)記錄可靠,威廉派官員編了一本財產(chǎn)清冊,稱為末日審判書2.ContentsandthesignificanceoftheGreatCharter大憲章的內(nèi)容及意義AlsoknownastheMagnaCarta,GreatCharterwassignedbyKingJohnin1215underthepressofthebarons.大憲章是約翰國王1215年在封建貴族壓力下簽定的.Itconsistsof63clauses.Itsimportantprovisionsareasfollows大憲章共有63條:①notaxshouldbemadewithouttheapprovaloftheGrandCouncil沒有大議會批準(zhǔn)不得征稅;②nofreemanshouldbearrested,imprisoned,ordeprivedofhispropertyexceptbythelawoftheland除依照法律,不得隨意逮捕,拘禁自由民,不依照土地法不得剝奪其財產(chǎn);③theChurchshouldpossessallitsrights,togetherwithfreedomofelections教會擁有的權(quán)利和選舉自由不受侵犯;④Londonandothertownsshouldretaintheirancientrightsandprivileges倫敦和其它城市應(yīng)保留其古老的權(quán)利和特權(quán);⑤thereshouldbethesameweightandmeasuresthroughoutthecountry全國應(yīng)統(tǒng)一度量衡.AlthoughtheGreatCharterhaslongbeenpopularlyregardedasthefoundationofEnglishliberties,itwasastatementofthefeudalandlegalrelationshipbetweentheCrownandthebarons,aguaranteeofthefreedomoftheChurchandalimitationofthepowersoftheking.ThespiritoftheGreatCharterwasthelimitationofthepowersoftheking,keepingthemwithintheboundsofthefeudallawoftheland.盡管長期普遍認(rèn)為大憲章是英國自由的基礎(chǔ),但它只是國王與貴族之間的封建與法律關(guān)系,保證教會的自由,限制國王的權(quán)力.大憲章的精神是限制王權(quán),置王權(quán)于封建法律的約束下.3.TheoriginsoftheEnglishParliament英國議會的起源In1258,thebarons,underSimondeMontfort,forcedHenryⅢandhissonPrinceEdwardtosweartoaccepttheProvisionsofOxford.Later,HenryrefusedtoconfirmtotheProvisionsofOxford,thusacivilwarbrakeoutbetweentheking’ssupportersandthebaronialarmyledbySimondeMontfort.1258年,貴族們在西蒙德孟福爾的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下迫使國王和他的兒子愛德華王子宣誓接受"牛津協(xié)定".亨利拒絕批準(zhǔn)牛津協(xié)定,國王的支持者和西蒙德孟福爾領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的封建主組成的軍隊之間爆發(fā)了內(nèi)戰(zhàn).TheGreatCouncilisknowntobetheprototypeofthecurrentBritishParliament.In1265,SimondeMontfortsummonedtheGreatCouncil,togetherwithtwoknightsfromeachcountryandtwocitizensfromeachtown.,ameetingwhichhasseenastheearliestparliament.ItlaterdevelopedintotheHouseofLordsandtheHouseofCommonasaparliament.大議會是當(dāng)今英國議會的原型.1265年,西門德孟福爾召開大議會,各縣有兩名騎士,各鎮(zhèn)有兩名市民參加,此次會議被看作是最早的議會.大議會發(fā)展到后來演變成議會.分為上議院和下議院Itsmainrolewastoofferadvice,nottomakedecisions.Therewerestillnoelections,noparties,andthemostimportantpartofParliamentwastheHouseofLords.其作用是咨詢而非決定,也沒有選舉和政黨.議會的最重要的部分是上議院4.TheHundredYears'WarwithFranceanditsconsequences百年戰(zhàn)爭及其結(jié)果WhenEdwardIIIclaimedtheFrenchCrownbuttheFrenchrefusedtorecognize,thewarbrokeout.愛德華三世宣布要繼承法國王位,但法國人民拒絕承認(rèn),于是引發(fā)了百年戰(zhàn)爭.TheHundredYears’WarwithFrancereferstothewarbetweenEnglandandFrancethatlastedintermittentlyfrom1337to1453.Thecausesofthewarwerepartlyterritorialandpartlyeconomic.TheterritorialcauseswererelatedwiththepossessionbytheEnglishkingsofthelargeduchyofAquitaine,whiletheFrenchkingscovetedthislargeslice.TheeconomiccauseswereconnectedwithclothmanufacturingtownsinFlanders,whichweretheimporterofEnglishwool,buttheywereloyaltotheFrenchkingpolitically.Besides,England'sdesiretostopFrancefromgivingaidtoScotsandagrowingsenseofnationalismweretheothercauses.百年戰(zhàn)爭指1337年到1453年英法之間一場斷斷續(xù)續(xù)的戰(zhàn)爭.戰(zhàn)爭的起因既有領(lǐng)土因素又有經(jīng)濟(jì)因素.領(lǐng)土起因尤其是與英國國王擁有法國阿奎丹大片的公爵領(lǐng)地有密切關(guān)系,隨著法國國王勢力日增,他們?nèi)找婵释碱I(lǐng)這片從他們領(lǐng)土內(nèi)被分割出去的土地.經(jīng)濟(jì)原因則與弗蘭德斯有關(guān).弗蘭德斯地區(qū)生產(chǎn)棉布的城鎮(zhèn)是英國羊毛的主要進(jìn)口地,但這些城鎮(zhèn)在政治上卻效忠法國國王.其他原因還有英國試圖阻止法國幫助蘇格蘭人,以及不斷覺醒的民族意識.Whenthewarended,CalaiswastheonlypartofFrancethatstillinthehandsofEnglish.戰(zhàn)爭結(jié)束的時候只有加來港還被英軍占領(lǐng).Consequences:TheexpulsionoftheEnglishfromFranceisregardedasablessingforbothcountries:hadtheyremained,thesuperiorsizeandwealthofFrancewouldcertainlyhavehinderedthedevelopmentofaseparateEnglishnationalidentity,whileFrancewashinderedsolongasaforeignpoweroccupiedsomuchFrenchterritory.戰(zhàn)爭的結(jié)果:把英國人趕出了法國對兩個國家都是幸事:若英國人繼續(xù)留在法國,那么法國人在領(lǐng)土和財富上所占的優(yōu)勢必然會阻礙英國作為一個獨(dú)立民族的發(fā)展;而法國如被外國勢力占領(lǐng)了大量的領(lǐng)土,其民族特性的發(fā)展也要長期受阻.HenryⅤrenewedthewarin1415andwonacrushingvictoryatArgencourt.HewasrecognizedtotheFrenchthronein1420.Afterhisdeath,theFrench,encouragedbyJoanofArc,finallydrovetheEnglishoutofFrance.亨利五世在1415年重新發(fā)動戰(zhàn)爭.在阿根科特戰(zhàn)役中大勝.他在1420年成為法國國王.亨利死后,法國人民在圣女貞德的鼓舞下,最終把英軍驅(qū)逐出法國.5.ConsequencesoftheBlackDeath黑死病的影響TheBlackDeathwasthemodernnamegiventothedeadlyepidemicdiseasespreadbyratfleasacrossEuropeinthe14thcentury.ItsweptthroughEnglandinthesummerof1348withoutwarningand,mostimportantly,withoutanycure.ItreducedEngland’spopulationfromfourmilliontotwomillion(aboutonehalfandonethirdofthepopulationwaskilled)bytheendofthe14thcentury.黑死病是現(xiàn)代名稱,指老鼠身上的跳蚤傳播的致命的淋巴腺鼠疫引起的傳染性疾病.14世紀(jì)傳播了到歐洲.1348年夏天橫掃全英國,事先毫無預(yù)兆,而更重要的是無藥可救.英國的人口在14世紀(jì)末從400萬銳減至200萬.TheeconomicconsequencesoftheBlackDeathwerefar-reaching.Asaresultoftheplague,muchlandwasleftuntendedandtherewasaterribleshortageoflabour.Landownerstendedtochangefromarabletosheep-farming,whichrequiredlesslabour.Thesurvivingpeasantshadbetterbargainningpowerandwereinapositiontochangetheirserfdomintopaidlabour.Sosomelandlords,unableorunwillingtopayhigherwages,triedtoforcepeasantsbackintoserfdom.In1351thegovernmentissuedaStatuteofLabourerswhichmadeitacrimeforpeasantstoaskformorewagesorfortheiremployerstopaymorethantherateslaiddownbytheJusticesofthePeace.黑死病對經(jīng)濟(jì)造成的后果更為深遠(yuǎn).鼠疫導(dǎo)致了大片土地?zé)o人照管和勞動力極度匱乏.地主只得把耕地改成對人力需求較少的牧場.幸存的農(nóng)民處于有利的可以討價還價的地位,他們從農(nóng)奴變?yōu)楣蛡騽趧恿?。于是一些支付不起或不愿意支付較高工資的地主想方設(shè)法迫使農(nóng)民重返農(nóng)奴地位。1351年政府頒布“勞工法令”，規(guī)定農(nóng)民們漲工資的要求，或者是雇主支付比地方官制訂的工資水平要高的工資都是犯罪.Chapter4TransitiontotheModernAge向現(xiàn)代英國的過渡(1455-1688)1.ThenatureandconsequencesoftheWarsoftheRoses玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭ThenameWarsoftheRoseswas,infact,coinedbya19thcenturynovelistSirWalterScott.Thiswasawarbetweentherichandambitiousnobles.玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭這個詞是19世紀(jì)的大作家瓦爾特斯考特創(chuàng)造的.這是一場富人和野心勃勃的貴族之間的戰(zhàn)爭.ItwasreferredtothesebattlesbetweenthegreatHouseofLancaster,symbolizedbytheredrose,andthatofYork,symbolizedbythewhite,from1455to1485.AlthoughtheWarsoftheRoseswerewagedintermittentlyforthirtyyears,ordinarypeoplewerelittleaffected.Feudalismreceiveditsdeathblow.Nolessthan80noblesofroyalbloodwerekilledinthewars.Thegreatmedievalnobilitywasmuchweakenedanddiscredited.Theking’spowerbecamesupreme.它是指從1455年到1485年,以紅玫瑰為象征的蘭開斯特大家族和以白玫瑰為象征的約克家族之間戰(zhàn)爭.雖然玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭斷斷續(xù)續(xù)進(jìn)行了30年,但普通民眾所受影響甚微.封建制度卻遭受了致命打擊,不少于80位皇室血統(tǒng)的貴族陣亡.中世紀(jì)的貴族勢力被大大削弱,名譽(yù)掃地.至此,國王的權(quán)利變得至高無上.Afterthewars,kingHenryTudorreplacedkingRichardⅢtoruleEngland.玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭后,亨利都鐸取代了理查德三世統(tǒng)治英國.2.HenryⅧandtheEnglishReformation亨利八世和英國的宗教改革HenryⅧwasaboveallresponsibleforthereligiousreformoftheChurch亨利八世是宗教改革的最重要的責(zé)任者.Therewere3maincauses:①adesireforchangeandreformintheChurchhadbeengrowingformanyyearsandnow,encouragedbythesuccessofMartinLuther,manypeoplebelieveditstimehadcome期望教會改革已有多年,現(xiàn)在又受馬丁路德成功的鼓舞,許多人認(rèn)為時機(jī)已到;②theprivilegeandwealthoftheclergywerealsoresented人們痛恨教職人員的特權(quán)和財富;③Henryneedsmoney亨利需要錢.ThereformbeganasastruggleforadivorceandendedinfreedomfromthePapacy.HenryVIIIwantedtodivorceCatherineofAragonbecauseshecouldnotproduceamaleheirforhim.ButthePoperefusedtoannulhismarriage.Henry’sreformswastogetridoftheEnglishChurch’sconnectionwiththePope,andtomakeanindependentChurchofEngland.HemadethisbreakwithRomegraduallybetween1529and1534.HedissolvedallofEngland’smonasteriesandnunneriesbecausetheyweremoreloyaltothePopethantotheirEnglishkings,andpasttwolawsastheActofsuccessionof1534andtheActofSupremacyof1535madehisreformpossible.HeestablishedthechurchofEnglandasthenationalchurchofthecountry,andhemadehimselfthesupremeheadofthechurchofEngland.改革以爭取離婚而開始,以脫離教皇而告終.亨利八世想與阿拉貢的凱瑟琳離婚因為她沒有生下男嗣,但是教皇拒絕了.亨利改革的目的是擺脫英國教會與教皇的聯(lián)系,成立獨(dú)立的英格蘭教會.1529年至1534年間逐漸地與羅馬脫離了關(guān)系.他解散了所有英國的修道院和修女院,因為后者對教皇比對英國國王更忠誠.1534年的《繼位法》和1535年的《至尊法案》使改革具有了可行性.1535年他獲“英格蘭教會最高首腦”之稱號.TheEnglishReformationhad3importanteffects:TheystressedthepowerofthemonarchandcertainlystrengthenedHenry’sposition;Parliamenthadneverdonesuchalongandimportantpieceofworkbefore,itsimportancegrewasaresult.HisattackonthePope’spowerencouragedmanycriticsofabusesoftheCatholicChurch.EnglandwasmovingawayformCatholicismtowardsprotestaintism.改革的三大影響:亨利的改革強(qiáng)調(diào)了君主權(quán)力,自然加強(qiáng)了亨利的地位;議會以往從未做過如此漫長而重要的工作,自然其重要性也有所加強(qiáng);他對教皇權(quán)力的打擊鼓舞許多人批評指責(zé)天主教會,并希望從天主教轉(zhuǎn)向新教.3.ElizabethIandParliament伊莉莎白一世和國會Generallyspeaking,ElizabethwasabletoworkwithParliament,buttherelationshipwithParliamentwasoftenturbulent.Parliamentwisheditscustomaryrightoffreespeechconfirmedinwriting;anditwantedtobeallowedtostartdiscussionofimportantquestionsatwill,notbyinvitation.Elizabethwouldnotpermiteitherthing.Elizabethtreated5questionsaspersonalandprivate.Thesewereherreligion,hermarriage,herforeignpolicy,thesuccessiontothethroneandherfinance.伊麗莎白能與議會合作,但與議會的關(guān)系經(jīng)常動蕩不安.議會希望以書面形式確認(rèn)議會按慣例已享有的言論自由,也希望能隨意地討論重大問題,而無需經(jīng)過女王邀請.伊麗莎白一件也未批準(zhǔn).伊麗莎白把五個問題看作是個人問題,那就是她的宗教,婚姻,對外政策,王位的繼承和財產(chǎn).4.Elizabeth'sreligiousreformandherforeignpolicy伊莉莎白的宗教改革和外交政策Elizabeth'sreligiousreformwasacompromiseofviews.ShebrokeMary'stieswithRomeandrestoredherfather'sindependentChurchofEngland,i.e.keepingtoCatholicdoctrinesandpracticesbuttobefreeofthePapalcontrol.HerreligioussettlementwasunacceptabletoboththeextremeProtestantsknownasPuritansandtoardentCatholics.伊麗莎白的宗教改革是各種觀點(diǎn)的妥協(xié).她中斷了瑪麗女王與羅馬建立的關(guān)系,恢復(fù)了她父親建立的獨(dú)立的英格蘭教會也就是說她保持天主教的教條及做法,但不受教皇控制.她的宗教和解既不被極端的清教徒所接受,也不為虔誠的天主教徒所接受.Fornearly30yearsElizabethsuccessfullyplayedoffagainsteachotherthetwogreatCatholicpowers,FranceandSpain,andpreventedEnglandfromgettinginvolvedinanymajorEuropeanconflict.Throughhermarriageallianceswhichwerenevermaterialized,ElizabethmanagedtomaintainafriendlyrelationshipwithFrance.SoEnglandwadabletofacethedangerfromSpain.In1588,theEnglishnavydefeatedtheSpanishArmada.ThedestructionoftheSpanishArmadashowedEngland’superiorityasanavalpower.近30年的時間,伊莉莎白成功地令兩大天主教強(qiáng)國法國和西班牙互相斗殺,從而免于英國卷入任何主要的歐洲國的沖突.通過她從未具體化的聯(lián)姻,伊莉莎白設(shè)法與法國維持友好關(guān)系,因此英國能面對來自西班牙的危險.1588年,英國海軍擊敗了西班牙艦隊.西班牙無敵艦隊的滅亡表明了英國作為海上強(qiáng)國的優(yōu)勢.5.DistinctivefeaturesoftheEnglishRenaissance英國文藝復(fù)興的特點(diǎn)InEngland,theRenaissancebeganin1485andithad5characteristics英國的文藝復(fù)興起始與1485年.五個特點(diǎn):①EnglishculturewasrevitalizednotsomuchdirectlybytheclassicsasbycontemporaryEuropeansundertheinfluenceoftheclassics英國文化的復(fù)興不全是直接接受古典文化的影響,而更多的是受當(dāng)時有文藝復(fù)興思想的歐洲人的影響;②EnglandasaninsularcountryfollowedacourseofsocialandpoliticalhistorywhichwastoagreatextentindependentofthecourseofhistoryelsewhereinEurope作為島國,英國的社會和政治歷史進(jìn)程在很大程度上獨(dú)立于歐洲其它國家;③Owingtothegreatgeniusofthe14thcenturypoetChaucer,thenativeliteraturewassufficientlyvigorousandexperiencedinassimilatingforforeigninfluenceswithoutbeingsubjectedbythem.由于14世紀(jì)偉大的天才詩人喬叟的出現(xiàn),英國本土文學(xué)相當(dāng)有生氣,善于融合外來影響而未被同化;④EnglishRenaissance’sliteratureisprimarilyartistic,ratherthanphilosophicalandscholarly.⑤TheRenaissancecoincidedwiththeReformationinEngland英國文藝復(fù)興文學(xué)首先是藝術(shù)的,其次才是哲學(xué)的和學(xué)術(shù)的⑤文藝復(fù)興與英國宗教改革同時發(fā)生.6.TheCivilWarsandtheirconsequences內(nèi)戰(zhàn)及其影響B(tài)ecauseoftheabsoluteruleofCharles,theconfrontationbetweenCharlesIandtheParliamentdevelopedintothecivilwar.ThewarbeganonAugust22,1642andendedin1651.CharlesIwascondemnedtodeath.由于查爾斯的“君權(quán)神授”統(tǒng)治權(quán),他與議會的對峙發(fā)展成了內(nèi)戰(zhàn)戰(zhàn)爭開始于1642年8月22日,結(jié)束于1651年.最后查爾斯被處死In1642,thefirstEnglishCivilWarbeganbetweenKingCharlesandParliament.Theking'smenwerecalledCavaliers,andthesupportersofParliamentwerecalledRoundheadsbecauseoftheirshorthaircuts.1642年,查爾斯一世和議會之間的第一次內(nèi)戰(zhàn)開始.國王的支持者被稱為"騎士派";支持議會者因為留短發(fā)被稱為"圓顱派".TheEnglishCivilWarisalsocalledthePuritanRevolution,becausetheking'sopponentsweremainlyPuritans,andhissupporterschieflyEpiscopalianandCatholic.IthasbeenseenasaconflictbetweentheparliamentandtheKing,butalsoaconflictbetweentheeconomicinterestsoftheurbanmiddleclassesandthetraditionaleconomicinterestsoftheCrown.Theeconomicinterestsoftheurbanmiddleclassescoincidedwiththeirreligious(Puritan)ideologywhiletheCrown’straditionaleconomicinterestscorrespondinglyalliedwithAnglicanreligiousbelief.TheEnglishCivilWarnotonlyoverthrewfeudalsysteminEnglandbutalsoshookthefoundationofthefeudalruleinEurope.Itisgenerallyregardedasthebeginningofmodernworldhistory.英國內(nèi)戰(zhàn)又稱為清教徒革命.因為國王的敵人主要是清教徒,而支持者主要是天主教派成員和天主教徒.這是議會和國王間的沖突,也是城市中產(chǎn)階級的經(jīng)濟(jì)利益與皇室傳統(tǒng)經(jīng)濟(jì)利益之間的沖突.城市中產(chǎn)階級經(jīng)濟(jì)利益剛好與他們的宗教(清教)思想吻合.相應(yīng)地,皇室傳統(tǒng)的經(jīng)濟(jì)利益則與圣公會教的宗教信仰結(jié)合在一起.英國內(nèi)戰(zhàn)不僅推翻了英國的封建制度,而且動搖了歐洲封建統(tǒng)治的基礎(chǔ).英國內(nèi)戰(zhàn)通常被看作是現(xiàn)代世界史的開端.7.TheCommonwealthunderOliverCromwellFrom1649to1658EnglandwascalledaCommonwealth.ItwasruledfirstbyOliverCromwellasLordProtector(in1653,hebecameLordProtectoroftheCommonwealthofEngland).從1649年到1658年,英國被稱為共和國.由奧利弗克倫威爾護(hù)國主統(tǒng)治(1653年他成為英格蘭共和國的護(hù)國主).OneofCromwell'sfirstactswastocrushwithoutmercyarebellioninIreland,killingalltheinhabitantsofthetownsofDroghedaandWexford.AnotherwasthesuppressionoftheLevellers,proposedaradicalpoliticalprogrammenotatalltohistaste.克倫威爾的舉措之一就是毫不留情地鎮(zhèn)壓愛爾蘭的起義,殺死了德洛莎達(dá)和威克斯福兩鎮(zhèn)的所有居民.另一舉措是鎮(zhèn)壓平均派,原因是他們提出的激進(jìn)政治方案不合克倫威爾的口味.Otheraspectsofthisperiodwere:establishmentofcoloniesandcolonialtrade,religioustolerationforall,andgreaterunderstandingoftheeconomy.這時期其他方面的特點(diǎn)是:建立殖民地和進(jìn)行殖民貿(mào)易;容忍所有宗教;對經(jīng)濟(jì)更加了解.8.TheRestorationandtheGloriousRevolution復(fù)辟和光榮革命TheParliamentelectedin1660resolvedthecrisisbyaskingthelateKing'ssontoreturnfromhisexileinFranceasKingCharlesII.TheRestoration,asitwascalled,wasrelativelysmooth,andalthoughnotaperfectking,CharlesIIwasabletocapitalizeongovernmentgoodwilltowardshim.BritainprosperedunderCharles.1660年選出的議會要求上一任國王的兒子從長期流亡地法國回國作國王,稱查爾斯二世,從而解決了危機(jī).所謂的王朝復(fù)辟相對順利.盡管查爾斯二世不是完美國王,但他卻能利用政府對他的善意.在查爾斯的統(tǒng)治下英國繁榮發(fā)展.In1685CharlesIIdiedandwassucceededbyhisbrotherJamesII.JameswasbroughtupinexileinEurope,wasaCatholic.Hehopedtorulewithoutgivinguphispersonalreligiousvies.ButEnglandwasnomoretolerantofaCatholickingin1688than40yearsago.SotheEnglishpoliticiansrejectedJamesII,andappealedtoaProtestantkingWilliamofOrange,James'sDutchnephewandthehusbandofMary,James'sdaughter,toinvadeandtaketheEnglishthrone.WilliamlandedatTorbayin1688andmarcheduponLondon.InEnglandthistakeoverwasrelativelysmooth,withnobloodshed,noranyexecutionoftheking.ThisbecameknownastheGloriousRevolution.1685年查爾斯二世去世,由其弟詹姆斯二世繼位.詹姆斯二世從小在歐洲流亡長大,是個天主教徒.他希望不放棄個人宗教信仰統(tǒng)治國家.但是1688的英國已不象40年前那樣能容忍天主教徒當(dāng)國王了.英國政客反對詹姆斯二世,他們呼吁信奉新教的國王奧蘭治親王威廉入侵英國奪取王位,威廉是詹姆斯的荷蘭侄子,也是他的女婿.1688年11月15日威廉在托爾比登陸并占領(lǐng)倫敦.這一占領(lǐng)相當(dāng)順利,既未流血也未處死國王,所以就稱為"光榮革命".WilliamandMaryjointlyacceptedtheBillofRightswhich,excludinganyRomanCatholicfromthesuccession,confirmedtheprincipleofparliamentarysupremacyandguaranteedfreespeechwithinboththeHouseofLordsandtheHouseofCommons.威廉和瑪麗共同接受了《權(quán)利法案》,此法案剝奪了羅馬天主教徒的繼承王位的權(quán)利,確立了議會權(quán)利至高無上的原則,保證了上下兩院中的自由言論權(quán).Chapter7GovernmentandAdministration英國政府機(jī)構(gòu)1.TheBritishConstitution英國憲法TheUnitedKingdomisaconstitutionalmonarchy:theheadofstateisakingoraqueen.Inpractice,theSovereignreigns,butdoesn’trule:theUnitedKingdomisgoverned,inthenameoftheSovereignbyHisorHerMajesty’sGovernment.TheSystemofparliamentarygovernmentisnotbasedonawrittenconstitution.ThereisnowrittenconstitutionintheUnitedKingdom,thatis,theBritishconstitutionisnotsetoutinanysingledocument.Itismadeupofstatutelaw,commonlawandconventions.TheJudiciarydeterminescommonlawandinterpretsstatutes.聯(lián)合王國是君主立憲制國家,國家的首腦是國王或女王.實際上君主統(tǒng)而不治.聯(lián)合王國以君的名義,由國王或女王陛下政府治理.英國的議會制度并不是基于成文憲法.英國憲法不由單一文件構(gòu)成,而由成文法,習(xí)慣法和慣例組成.司法部門裁定習(xí)慣法或解釋成文法.2.ConstitutionalMonarchyinBritain英國君主立憲制Themonarchyistheoldestinstitutionofgovernment,goingbacktoatleastthe9thcentury.Thecontinuityofthemonarchyhasbeenbrokenonlyoncewhen,between1649to1660,arepublicwasestablished.君主政體是最古老的政府機(jī)構(gòu),至少可以追溯到9世紀(jì).除了1649年至1660年間建立過一個共和國而中斷過一次外,很少改變.Althoughthemonarchyhassurvived,itseemsthatithasnorealpowertoday.Themonarch’spowerarelimitedbylawandParliament.ConstitutionalmonarchybeganaftertheGloriousRevolutionin1688.今天盡管君主政體仍然存在,但似乎已無實權(quán).它的權(quán)力受限于法律和議會.君主立憲制是從1688年的光榮革命后開始.TheQueen’shusbandistheDukeofEdinburgh,andhereldestsonisthePrinceofWales.Whenadaughtersucceedstothethrone,shebecomesQueenRegnant,andhasthesamepowersasaking.女王的的丈夫是愛丁堡公爵,長子是威爾士親王,女兒繼位則成為在位女王,與國王享有同等權(quán)力.ElizabethII,hertitleintheUnitedKingdomis"ElizabeththeSecond,bytheGraceofGodoftheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIrelandandHerOtherRealmsandTerritories,Queen,HeadoftheCommonwealth,DefenderoftheFaith".伊莉莎白二世,她的全稱是"上帝神佑,大布列顛及北愛爾蘭聯(lián)合王國以及她的其他領(lǐng)土和領(lǐng)地的女王,英聯(lián)邦元首,國教保護(hù)者伊莉莎白二世".TheQueenisthesymbolofthewholenation.Inlaw,Sheisheadoftheexecutive,anintegralpartofthelegislature,headofthejudiciary,thecommander-in-chiefofallthearmedforcesoftheCrownandthe“supremegovernor”oftheestablishedChurchofEngland.女王是國家的象征.從法律上講,她是行政首腦,立法機(jī)構(gòu)的組成部分,司法首腦,全國武裝部隊總司令,英國國教"至高無上的領(lǐng)袖".TheCivilListisanannualgrantapprovedbyParliament.ThegrantismadetotheBritishSovereignandmembersoftheroyalfamily.Itisusedtocovertheexpenseinvolvedincarryingouttheirpublicduties.InBritain,theQueen’sprivateexpenditureasSovereignismetfromthePrivyPurse,whichisfinancedmainlyfromtherevenueoftheDuchyofLancaster.在英國,女王的君主開銷由王室內(nèi)庫支付,王室內(nèi)庫主要來自蘭開斯特郡的王室領(lǐng)地收入.3.TheBritishParliamentanditsfunctions英國的議院和它的作用TheUnitedKingdomisaunitary,notafederal,state.ParliamentconsistsoftheSovereign,theHouseofLordsandtheHouseofCommons.AParliamenthasamaximumdurationoffiveyears.英國是中央集權(quán)國家,而不是聯(lián)邦制國家.議會由君主,上議院和下議院組成.一屆議會的最長任期是5年.ThemainfunctionsofParliamentare:議會的主要作用是:①topasslaws通過立法;②toprovide,byvotingfortaxation,themeansofcarryingontheworkofgovernment投票批準(zhǔn)征稅,為政府工作提供資金;③toexaminegovernmentPolicyandadministrations,includingproposalforexpenditure檢查政府政策和行政管理,包括撥款提議;④todebatethemajorissuesoftheday當(dāng)天的議題辯論.TheHouseofParliamentwererebuiltbetween1835and1857afterhavingbeendestroyedbyfireandweredesignedbySirCharlesBarry.ThepublicareadmittedtotheStrangers’GalleriesintheHouseofLordsandtheHouseofCommons.議會大廈被大火燒毀后,于1835年重建,是查爾斯巴里設(shè)計的.公眾可以到上下議院的公眾旁聽席旁聽會議辯論.TheHouseofLordsismadeupoftheLordsSpiritualandtheLordsTemporal.TheLordsSpiritualaretheArchbishopsofCanterburyandYorkand24seniorbishopsoftheChurchofEngland.ThemainfunctionoftheHouseofLordsistobringthewideexperienceofitsmembersintotheprocessoflawmaking.Inotherwords,thenon-electedHouseistoactasachamberofrevision,complementingbutnotrivalingtheelectHouse.上議院由神職貴族議員和世俗貴族議員組成.神職貴族議員是指坎特伯雷大主教和約克大主教以及英國教會的24位高級主教.它的主要作用是用議員的豐富經(jīng)驗幫助立法.換而言之,非選舉的上議院是修正議院,對由選舉產(chǎn)生的下議院立案進(jìn)行補(bǔ)充而并非反對.TheGentlemanUsheroftheBlackRod,usuallyknownas“BlackRod”,isresponsibleforsecurity,accommodationandservicesintheHouseofLords’partofthePalaceofWestminster.“黑杖侍衛(wèi)”負(fù)責(zé)威斯敏斯特宮中上議院的安全,膳宿和服務(wù).TheHouseofCommoniselectedbyuniversaladultsuffrageandconsistsof651MembersofParliament(MPs).ItisintheHouseofCommonsthattheultimateauthorityforlaw-makingresides.下議院由成人普選產(chǎn)生,由651名議員組成.下議院擁有最終立法權(quán).Britainisdivided651constituencies.EachoftheconstituenciesreturnsonemembertotheHouseofCommons.AgeneralElectionmustbeheldeveryfiveyearsandisoftenheldatmorefrequentintervals.英國被劃分為651個選區(qū),每個選區(qū)選一名下議院議員.大選必須五年舉行一次,但經(jīng)常不到五年就進(jìn)行一次選舉.BritishcitizensandcitizensofotherCommonwealthcountries,togetherwithcitizensoftheIrish-Republic,maystandforelectionasMpsprovidedtheyareaged21oroverandarenotdisqualified.Acandidatemustdeposit500,whichisreturnedifheorshereceives5%ormoreofthevotecast.英國公民和其他英聯(lián)邦國家公民以及愛爾蘭共和國公民,都可以競選議員,條件是年滿21歲以上和沒有被取消資格.候選人必須交納500英鎊保證金,若得到投票總數(shù)的5%以上的選票則可以退還.Britainhasanumberofparties,butthereareonlytwomajorparties.ThesetwopartiesaretheConservativePartyandtheLabourParty.Since1945,eithertheConservativePartyortheLabourPartyhasheldpower.ThepartywhichwinssufficientseatsataGeneralElectiontocommandamajorityofsupportersintheHouseofCommonsusuallyformstheGovernment.TheleaderofthemajoritypartyisappointedPrimeMinisterbytheSovereign.ThepartywhichwinsthesecondlargestnumberofseatsbecomestheofficialOpposition,withitsownleaderand“shadowcabinet”.TheaimsoftheOppositionaretocontributetotheformulationofpolicyandlegislationbyconstructivecriticism,toopposegovernmentproposalsitconsidersobjectionable,toseekamendmentstogovernmentBills,andtoputforwarditsownpoliciesinordertoimproveitschancesofwinningthenextgeneralelection.英國有很多政黨，但有兩個主要的政黨—-保守黨和工黨。從1945年以來，兩黨一直輪流執(zhí)政，在大選中獲多數(shù)議席因而在下議院擁有多數(shù)支持者的政黨組建政府，多數(shù)黨領(lǐng)袖由君主任命為首相。獲得第二多數(shù)議席的政黨則正式成為“反對黨”，有自己的領(lǐng)袖和影子內(nèi)閣。反對黨的目的是對政策和立法的制定提出建設(shè)性批評,反對它認(rèn)為不對的提議,修正政府議案,提出自己的方針政策以增加瑕疵大選時本黨獲勝的機(jī)會.4.TheBritishGovernment英國政府HerMajesty’sGovernmentisthebodyofministersresponsiblefortheconductofnationalaffairs.ThePrimeMinisterisappointedbytheQueen.Heisalso,bytradition,FirstLordoftheTreasuryandMinisterfortheCivilService.Bymodernconvention,thePrimeMinisteralwayssitsintheHouseofCommons.HisofficalresidenceisNo.10DowningStreetinLondon.ThePrimeMinisterpresidesovertheCabinet,isresponsiblefortheallocationoffunctionsamongministersandinformstheQueenatregularmeetingsofgeneralbusinessoftheGovernment.CabinetmembersholdmeetingsunderthechairmanshipofthePrimeMinisterforafewhourseachweektodecideGovernmentpolicyonmajorissues.女王陛下政府是由負(fù)責(zé)處理全國事務(wù)的大臣組成的機(jī)構(gòu).女王任命首相.根據(jù)傳統(tǒng),首相也是首席財政大臣和文職部大臣,根據(jù)現(xiàn)代慣例,首相必須是下議院議員.他的官邸是倫敦的唐寧