亞開(kāi)行-中國(guó)的氣候適應(yīng)性海洋治理（英）

NO.310

AUGUST2024

ADBBRIEFS

KEYPOINTS

?Promotesustainable

fisheriesmanagement:Collaboratewithall

stakeholders,includingfishers,scientists,and

policymakers,toenforceeffectivefishingquota

mechanismsandensurethelong-termviabilityoffishstocks.

?Prioritizemarine

conservationand

restoration:Focuson

establishingandeffectivelymanagingmarineprotectedareastosafeguardcritical

habitats,protectbiodiversity,andenhanceresilienceto

climatechange.

?Enhancescientificresearchandmonitoring:Strengtheneffortstounderstandthe

impactsofclimatechange

onmarineecosystemsby

collectingandanalyzing

dataonoceantemperatures,sealevels,acidification,anddeoxygenation.

?Strengthendisasterrisk

management:Bolster

disasterpreparedness,

response,andrecovery

strategiestoaddress

climate-relatedriskssuchassealevelrise,tropicalstorms,andharmfulalgalblooms.

ISBN978-92-9270-832-0(print)ISBN978-92-9270-833-7(PDF)

ISSN2071-7202(print)ISSN2218-2675(PDF)

PublicationStockNo.BRF240388-2

DOI:

/10.22617/BRF240388-2

Climate-ResilientOceanGovernanceinthePeople’sRepublicofChina

DongmeiGuo*

SeniorSafeguardsSpecialist(Environment)OfficeofSafeguards

AsianDevelopmentBank

ChristianFischerConsultant

Agriculture,Food,Nature,and

RuralDevelopmentSectorOffice

AsianDevelopmentBank

Inaneraofglobalconnectivityandsharedenvironmentalchallenges,thelinkages

betweenoceansandclimatechangearebecomingincreasinglyapparent.Oceanshavethegreatpotentialtoexacerbateormitigateclimatechangeanditsrelatedimpacts,

dependingonthepoliciesinplace.Thispolicybriefassesseshowclimatechangeaffects

oceans,comprisingecosystemsandcoastalandmarinebiodiversityinthePeople’s

RepublicofChina(PRC).ItexploresthePRC’spolicyoptionstoadapttoclimate

changeimpactsonoceansthroughamoreholisticcoastalandmarineenvironmental

managementsystem,includingimprovingintegratedandresilientoceangovernance

capacity,enhancingscientificresearchandmonitoring,andpromotingsustainable

fisheriesmanagement.Theserecommendationsaredesignedfordecision-makersto

transformoceanknowledgeintoeffectivepoliciesandinitiatives,therebysupporting

sustainableoceanmanagement,protectingcommunitiesandecosystems,andreducingtherisksassociatedwithclimatechange-relateddisastersincoastalandoceanareas.

INTRODUCTION

Theworld’soceans—coveringover70%oftheEarth’ssurface—andclimatechangearedirectlyandindirectlylinked.1Forinstance,theoceanplaysalargeroleinglobalclimateregulationviaitssystemofcurrents,whichdistributesheatandmoistureworldwide.

Accordingly,oceancurrentscangreatlyinfluencemeteorologicalweatherpatterns

suchasprecipitationandtropicalstorms.Oceancurrentsalsotransportnutrientsandplanktonworldwide,whichareessentialforhealthyoceanicecosystems.

Notes:Inthispublication,“$”referstoUnitedStatesdollars.ADBrecognizes“China”asthePeople’sRepublicofChina.

*TheauthorwasEnvironmentSpecialistintheAgriculture,Food,Nature,andRuralDevelopmentSectorOfficewhenthiscontentwasprepared.

1W.Han.2017.

OceansandClimate

.InD.Richardsonetal.,eds.InternationalEncyclopediaofGeography:People,theEarth,EnvironmentandTechnology.Wiley-Blackwell.

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Theworld’soceanscanabsorbandstoreavastamountofheatand

carbondioxidefromthesun,naturalprocesses,andanthropogenic

activity.2Theworld’soceansareestimatedtoabsorbapproximately90%ofanthropogenicheatand30%ofanthropogeniccarbon

emissions.3Withoutthepresenceoftheoceansandtheirrolesascarbonandheatsinks,theimpactsofawarmingclimatewouldbeevenmore

severe.Itisthereforevitaltoimplementeffectivepoliciestoprotectandmaintainthehealthoftheoceansforclimatechangemitigation.

StudyingtheRelationshipbetweenOceansandClimateChange

IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChangeSpecialReport.

In2022,theIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChangepublishedtheSpecialReportontheOceanandCryosphereinaChangingClimate.4Thereportexplainshowdifferentprojectedchangeswillimpact

communitiesandemphasizestheinterconnectionsbetweensociety,theeconomy,theenvironment,andpresentandemergingrisks.

Themainfindingsofthereportincludethefollowing:

(i)Amultitudeofdocumentedchangesinthephysical

compositionsoftheEarth’soceansandcryospherecanbe

associatedwithanthropogenicclimatechange.Forexample,globaloceantemperatureshaverisensince1970(virtually

certain),andtherateofoceanwarminghasdoubledsince1993(likely).

(ii)Changesintheoceanandcryosphereandtheirassociated

risksarepredictedtobefargreaterbytheendofthecentury(2081–2100)ifhighgreenhousegasprojectionsarefollowed,asopposedtolowemissionscenarios(veryhighconfidence).Themagnitudeofchangeiscalculatedtobecloselylinkedtothetrajectoryofgreenhousegasemissions,highlightingthe

needtoacturgentlyandefficiently.

(iii)Bothoceansandthecryospherehavedemonstratedthattheyhaveecologicaltippingpointsandthatsomechangesmaybeirreversible(highconfidence).

(iv)Communitiesinpolar,mountain,andcoastalenvironments

areparticularlyvulnerabletooceanandcryospherechanges.Poorandmarginalizedgroupsinthesecommunitiesare

especiallyvulnerabletohazardsandenvironmentalchanges(veryhighconfidence).

(v)AchievingtheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsremains

challengingunlessclimatechange-relatedissuesimpactingtheoceansandcryosphereareaddressed,especially

SustainableDevelopmentGoals13:LifeUnderWater.

THEIMPACTSOFCLIMATECHANGE

ONOCEANSOFTHEPEOPLE’SREPUBLICOFCHINA

SeaTemperatureRise

Theocean’sroleasaheatsinkandtheincreasingglobal

temperatureshaveledtorisingglobaloceantemperatures.

Sincethelate1970s,seasurfacetemperatures(SSTs)inthe

PRChaveincreasedatahigherratethantheglobalaverage.5

TheSSTofthePRC’scoastalandoffshorewatersispredictedtorisesignificantlyduringthe21stcenturyandataratehigherthantheglobalaverage.6OceanwarmingmayaccelerateinthePRCforseveralreasons,includinggeographiclocation(influenced

byfactorssuchassolarradiationandoceancurrents),landusechanges,andwaterpollution.

SSTsarealsorisingatvaryingratesacrossthePRC’soceans,

particularlythecoastalseaofEastChina.Thisisduetomany

interconnectingfactorssuchasoceancurrents,monsoonpatterns,levelsofurbanization,andland–seainteractions.Evenindifferentrepresentativeconcentrationpathway(RCP)scenarios,SSTsare

predictedtoriseatunevenrates(Figure1).

RisingSSTscansignificantlyimpactmarineprocessesand

ecosystemsbytriggeringcoralbleaching,changesinmigratorypatterns,disruptionstomarinefoodwebs,coastalecosystemdegradation,andheightenedcoastalvulnerability.Additionally,warmerwaterscaninfluenceatmospherictemperaturesand

contributetotheformationoftropicalstormsandtyphoons.

SeaLevel

ThesealevelsofthePRC’scoastlinesarerising.From1980to

2020,theaveragesealevelriserateofthePRC’scoastalwaters

was3.4millimetersperyear,exceedingtheglobalaverageduringthesameperiod(Figure2).ThisincreasingtrendissettocontinueasthesealevelofthePRC’scoastalwatersisprojectedtoriseby55–170millimetersoverthenext30years.7

SealevelrisediffersbyregioninthePRC,influencedbyfactors

likegeologicalconditions(areaswhicharesubsiding—suchasthenorthernpartofthePRC’sBohaiSeacoast—experiencehigher

ratesofsealevelrise),variationsinairpressure,proximitytoglacialmelt,andhumanactivities.8

2J.Fergesen.2022.

Here’sHowtheOceanisBeingHarnessedasaClimateSolution

.T.14October.

3L.Chengetal.2021.

UpperOceanTemperaturesHitRecordHighin2020

.AdvancesinAtmosphericSciences.38.pp.523–530.

4IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.2022.

TheOceanandCryosphereinaChangingClimate:SpecialReportoftheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimate

Change

.CambridgeUniversityPress.

5Y.Tangetal.2020.SurfaceWarmingReaccelerationinOffshoreChinaandItsInterdecadalEffectsontheEastAsia–PacificClimate.ScientificReports.10(1).14811.

6H.Tanetal.2020.ProjectionsofChangesinMarineEnvironmentinCoastalChinaSeasoverthe21stCenturyBasedonCMIP5Models.JournalofOceanologyandLimnology.38(6).pp.1676?1691.

7GovernmentofthePeople’sRepublicofChina,MinistryofNaturalResources.2021.2020BulletinofChinaSeaLevel.

8D.Zhouetal.2022.AbsoluteSeaLevelChangesAlongtheCoastofChinafromTideGauges,GNSS,andSatelliteAltimetry.JournalofGeophysicalResearch:Oceans.127(9).e2022JC018994.

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Climate-ResilientOceanGovernanceinthePeople’sRepublicofChina

Figure1:SeasonalSeaSurfaceTemperatureRiseinVariousRegions,1958?2018

SSTA/°C

1.5 1.00.50.00.5–1.0–1.5–2.0

(a)DJF,1958–2018

SSTA/°C

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

–0.5

–1.0

(b)JJA,1958–2018

1960197019801990200020102020

Year

1960197019801990

Year

200020102020

Globalocean

ChinaSea(coastalseaofSouthChina)

Northernhemisphere

ChinaSea(coastalseaofEastChina)

°C=degreesCelsius(centigrade);DJF=December,January,February;JJA=June,July,August;SSTA=seasurfacetemperatureaverage.

Source:R.Caietal.2021.ClimateChangeandChina’sCoastalZonesandSeas:Impacts,Risks,andAdaptation.ChineseJournalofPopulation,ResourcesandEnvironment.19(4).pp.304–310.

Sealevelchange(mm)

10080604020 0–20–40–60–80

Figure2:SeaLevelChangesinthePeople’sRepublicofChinaCoastalAreas,1980–2020

Perennialmeansealevel

19801984198819921996200020042008201220162020

Year

SealevelMeandecadesealevelLinearvariationtrend

mm=millimeter.

Source:GovernmentofthePeople’sRepublicofChina,MinistryofNaturalResources.2021.2020BulletinofChinaSeaLevel.

Thelong-termcumulativeeffectofsealevelriseinthePRC’s

coastalwaterswilldirectlycauseshoalloss,lowlandflooding,andecosystemdestruction.Itwillalsoincreasethelikelihoodofandexacerbatetheeffectsofstormsurges,flooding,salttides,coastalerosion,andsaltwaterintrusion.

OceanAcidification

Theoceanisavastcarbonsinkthatabsorbsapproximatelyone-

thirdofanthropogeniccarbondioxide,contributingsignificantlytooceanacidification(pH),i.e.,loweringpHlevelsinoceanwaters.SincethebeginningoftheIndustrialRevolution,thepHofthe

ocean’ssurfacehasdroppedfrom8.21to8.10.9

9S.Doneyetal.2009.OceanAcidification:TheOtherCO2Problem.AnnualReviewofMarineScience.1(1).pp.169–192.

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Figure3:ChangingOceanSurfacepHintheEasternCoastalAreaofChinaSea,1980–2017

1980–1989(a)

1990-1999

(c)

1980–1989(b)

1990-1999(d)

38N

32N

26N

20N

38N

32N

26N

20N

38N

32N

26N

20N

38N

32N

26N

20N

38N

38N

32N

32N

26N

26N

2000-2009(e)

2000-2009(f)

20N

38N

20N

38N

32N

32N

26N

26N

2010-2017

(g)

124E130E

2010-2017(h)

124E130E

20N

20N

118E

118E

8.0738.106SurfacepH

8.040

8.139

-2.3-1.9-1.5

SurfacepHtrend(10ˉ3yrˉ1)

E=east,N=north,pH=acidityorbasicity,yr=year.

Notes:(a,b)1980–1989,(c,d)1990–1999,(e,f)2000–2009,(g,h)2010–2017.

Source:H.ZhangandK.Wang.2019.SimulatedCO2-InducedOceanAcidificationforOceanintheEastChina:HistoricalConditionsSincePreindustrialTimeandFutureScenarios.ScientificReports.9(1).18559.

IncreasingoceanacidificationisdocumentedinallofthePRC’s

seas.Forexample,since1999,theseawaterpHvaluesinthe

coastalseaofSouthChinahavesignificantlyreduced,withan

annualaveragedecreaserateofabout0.012?0.014.10Ocean

acidificationisparticularlyevidentinthecoastalseaofSouth

China—comparedtopreindustrialtimes,theocean’ssurfacepH

declinedfrom8.20to8.06in2017,equivalenttoa35%increaseinacidity(Figure3).11

Oceanacidificationishighlydetrimentaltomarinefoodwebsbylimitingtheavailabilityofcalciumcarbonate,whichisnecessaryfortheshellandskeletonformationofaquaticorganismssuchasforaminifera,seaurchins,seasnails,oysters,andcorals.Thishascascadingconsequencesalongthefoodchainandexacerbates

pressuresonbiodiversity,ecosystems,andcommunitiesreliant

onmarineresources.12Hence,oceanacidificationisofparticular

concerninthePRCbecauseofitseconomicdependenceonfisheries.

OceanDeoxygenation

Warmerwaterholdslessoxygenasoxygenislesssolubleinwarmwaterthancoolerwater.Thisphenomenon—drivenbyocean

warming—iscalledoceandeoxygenation.Globally,oceanic

oxygencontenthasdecreasedbymorethan2%sincethe1970s.13VaryingdegreesofoceandeoxygenationhavebeenobservedinthePRC’swaters.Forinstance,from1978to2006,theoxygenationofsurfaceseawaterinthecentralsectionoftheBohaiSeadecreasedatarateofapproximately0.2micromolesperkilogramperyear,

whileinthedeepseawater,thedeclinewassteeperatabout

0.8micromolesperkilogramperyear.14

10X.Yuanetal.2019.

/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.11.053

.

11H.ZhangandK.Wang.2019.SimulatedCO2-InducedOceanAcidificationforOceanintheEastChina:HistoricalConditionsSincePreindustrialTimeandFutureScenarios.ScientificReports.9(1).18559.

12Q.Tangetal.2013.TheEffectsofOceanAcidificationonMarineOrganismsandEcosystem.ScienceBulletin.58(14).pp.1307–1314.

13S.Schmidtkoetal.2017.DeclineinGlobalOceanicOxygenContentDuringthePastFiveDecades.Nature.542.pp.335–339.

14Q.Weietal.2019.SpatiotemporalVariationsintheSummerHypoxiaintheBohaiSea(China)andControllingMechanisms.MarinePollutionBulletin.138.pp.125–134.

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Climate-ResilientOceanGovernanceinthePeople’sRepublicofChina

Figure4:RiskScenariosforCoastalEcosystemsBasedonObservedandProjectedClimateImpacts

4°C

3°C

2°C

1°C

0°C

??

I?

?

??

??

???

???

??

??

??????

??

??

???

???

???????

??

???????

EstuariesSaltMangroveSeagrassKelpSandyWarmwaterRocky

marshesforestsmeadowsforestsbeachescoralsshores

Levelofaddedimpacts/risksfromclimagechange

?=Low

Confidencelevelfortransition

??=Medium???=High????=Veryhigh|=Transitionrange

VeryhighHighModerateUndetectable

Source:N.L.Bindoffetal.2019.ChangingOcean,MarineEcosystems,andDependentCommunities.InH.-O.P?rtneretal.,eds.IPCCSpecialReportontheOceanandCryosphereinaChangingClimate.CambridgeUniversityPress.pp.447–587.

Thissubstantialreductioninoxygenlevelssignificantlyimpacts

marineenvironments,alteringthedistribution,composition,and

diversityofecosystemsandfoodchains.Inextremescenarios,

oceandeoxygenationcancause“deadzones,”whereoxygenlevelsaresolowthattheareasbecomepartiallyorentirelyuninhabitableforwildlife.

MarineandCoastalEcosystems

Coastalecosystemsworldwideareincreasinglyvulnerableto

climatechange,withthelevelofriskvaryingaccordingtoemissionscenarios.High-emissionpathways(e.g.,RCP8.5)exacerbate

challenges,andlow-emissionpathways(e.g.,RCP2.6)offersomemitigation.Certainecosystemsareparticularlyvulnerable:coral

reefs,kelpforests,seagrassmeadows,andsaltmarshes(Figure4).

Estuariesareessentialecosystemsastheyactastheinterface

betweenfreshwaterandoceansandarevitalfornutrientcycling.TheyarealsoessentialtothePRC’sfishingindustryandfood

security,asmanycommerciallyvaluablefishspeciesuseestuariesforspawningandnurseryareas.15However,estuariesareatrisk

fromrisingsealevels,harmfulalgalblooms,deoxygenation,andanthropogenicpollution.

Saltmarshes—intertidalzonesfloodedbyseawater—offer

multipleservicessuchascarbondioxideabsorption,stormsurgeprotection,waterdecontamination,andhabitatprovision.16

However,climate-relatedeventslikeheatwavesimpactsalt

marshfauna,andrisingtemperaturesmayintroduceinvasivespecies.Sealevelriseintensifiesratesofsubmersion,alteringsedimentfeaturesandsalinityandpotentiallyreducingcarbonsequestrationcapacity.17

Mangrovesarebiologicallydiverseecosystemsthatarehighly

effectiveinpurifyingwaterandprotectingcoastlines.However,theyarevulnerabletorisingtemperatures(whichhindertheirgrowth)andrisingsealevels(whichcouldoutpaceadaptation).From1988to2020,thetotalareaofmangrovesdecreasedin

thePRCfrom1,559.34hectaresto737.37hectaresbecause

ofunsustainableanthropogenicactivityandclimatechange.18MangroverestorationisanincreasingpriorityinthePRC,andmangroverestorationareasareslowlygrowing.19

Seagrassecosystemsprovideessentialhabitats,highproductivity,

waterpurification,andcarbonsequestration.Thereare22recordedspeciesofseagrassinthePRC,representing30%ofglobalspecies.20

15X.Zhangetal.2022.AnalysisontheDynamicsofCoastlineandReclamationinPearlRiverEstuaryinChinaforNearlyLastHalfCentury.Water.14(8).p.1228.

16J.Ericksonetal.2013.DirectandIndirectEffectsofElevatedAtmosphericCO2onNetEcosystemProductioninaChesapeakeBayTidalWetland.GlobalChangeBiology.19(11).pp.3368–3378

17L.Xueetal.2018.EffectsofSalinityandInundationonCarbonStorageofHalophytesintheTidalSaltMarshoftheYangtzeRiverEstuary,China.ActaEcologicaSinica.38(9).pp.2995–3003.

18P.Jiaetal.2022.TheCarbonSinkofMangroveEcologicalRestorationBetween1988–2020inQinglanBay,HainanIsland,China.Forests.13(10).1547.

19Z.Wangetal.2022.AnnualChangeAnalysisofMangroveForestsinChinaDuring1986–2021BasedonGoogleEarthEngine.Forests.13(9).1489.

20X.Huangetal.2006.MainSeagrassBedsandThreatstoTheirHabitatsintheCoastalSeaofSouthChina.ChineseScienceBulletin.51.pp.136–142.

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However,sealevelrisethreatensseagrassbedsthroughcoastalerosionanddirectsubmersion,impactingtheirphysiologyanddistributionandultimatelyreducingbedareas.21

ThePRChastheworld’slargestkelpcultivationindustry,whichishighlyimportantforthecountry’slivelihoodsandeconomic

development.22However,kelpforestsarethreatenedbyrising

temperatures,shiftingoceancurrents,increasingacidification,

andpollution.Furthermore,climatechangeimpactsgrowthratesandenhancestheproliferationofseaurchins—kelp’snatural

predators—leadingtoovergrazing.23

Coralreefecosystemsarehighlyvulnerabletoclimatechangeastheyareextremelysensitiveandhaverelativelynarrow

temperaturerequirements.24Risingseatemperatureshave

triggeredcoralbleachingevents,andoceanacidificationfurther

underminestheformationoftheircoralskeletons.ThePRC’scoralreefsystemsaregenerallydegrading,indicatingthedecliningoceanhealthinthecountry’sseasandglobally.25

Fisheries

ThePRCisthelargestcontributortoglobalfisheriesproduction.26However,thecountry’sfisheriessectorisexperiencingsevere

declinesinbiomassandbiodiversityduetounsustainablehumanactivityandclimatechange.Sincethe1960s,oceanwarmingandunsustainablefishingtechniqueshavedepletedfisheryresourcesinthePRC’soffshorewaters.Thisresultedinreducednumbersofbiologicallyimportantspecies,communitydiversity,trophiclevels,fishsizes,shorterlifespans,andearliersexualmaturityincertain

species.Sometraditionallyeconomicspecies—suchaslittleyellowcroaker,hairtail,andbutterfish—nolongerhavefishingseasons

becauseofclimatechangeandoverfishing.WildcapturefisheriesinthePRCarealsofacingsimilarchallenges.

ClimatechangeisalsoshiftingthedistributionoffishinthePRC.Marinefisharepredictedtodeviatefromtheirconventional

habitatsbymorethan40kilometerseverydecade.27Forinstance,during2010–2019,approximately25%ofthehabitatsof20%offishingspeciesintheChineseseasbecameuninhabitable

becauseofoceanwarming.28Estimatessuggestthatnearly

50%ofspecieswillnotbeabletolivein25%oftheircurrent

habitatsby2050.UnderRCP8.5,therewillbeseveredeclinesincommercialfishspecies,puttingregionalfishingeconomiesatriskofcollapse.29

DisasterRiskManagement

ClimatechangehasamplifiedcoastalandoceanichazardsacrossthePRC.30Thisisespeciallyimportantwhenconsideringthat

coastalcitiesinthePRCaccountfor20%ofthetotalpopulation.31

Forexample,thenorthwestPacificcoast—wherethePRCis

located—suffersfromtheworld’smostfrequent,intense,and

widespreadtropicalcyclones.Accordingly,thePRCisamong

thenationsmostimpactedbythesehazards.Onaverage,the

countryusedtoexperienceseventyphoonsperyear,with

annuallossesofroughly$5.6billion.32However,theincreasingfrequencyandintensityofthesehazardsputslives,ecosystems,andinfrastructureatrisk.Forinstance,inJuly2023,thePRC

facedseveralextremeweatherevents,includingtwotyphoons.Theeconomiclossesfromhazardsduringthatmonthalone

reached$10.5billion,greaterthanthoserecordedinthefirst6monthsoftheyear.Agriculturewasparticularlyimpactedbecauseofcropdamageandlivestocklosses.

RECOMMENDATIONSFORADAPTATIONTOCLIMATERISKSINTHECOASTAL

ANDOFFSHOREWATERSOF

THEPEOPLE’SREPUBLICOFCHINA

Theeffectsofclimatechangearefar-reachinginthePRC’s

coastalandoffshorewaters,withmanyinterrelatedfactorsatplay.Chinahasalreadyestablishedseveralpoliciesandplansaimedataddressingclimatechangeanditsimpactontheocean(tableonp.7).However,policygapsandemergingchallengesnecessitate

furtheractiontoenhanceclimateresilienceandprotectmarineecosystems.

PolicyReformPriorities

Buildinguponthefoundationofexistingpolicies,thefollowingfivekeypolicyrecommendationscanhelpestablishamoreholistic

coastalandmarineenvironmentalmanagementsysteminthePRC.Theserecommendationsconsidertheeffectsofclimatechange,

disasterriskmanagement,lostnetprimaryproduction(NPP),andeconomicgrowth,aimingtocreateamoresustainableandresilientfutureforChina'soceansandcoastalcommunities.

21C.Qinetal.2012.TheStudyonImpactsofSeaLevelElevationontheOffshoreMarineAreasEnvironmentofGuangdong.EnvironmentalScienceandManagement.37(8).pp.37?38.

22Z.Huetal.2021.KelpAquacultureinChina:ARetrospectiveandFutureProspect.ReviewsinAquaculture.13(3).pp.1324?1351.

23A.Bland.2017.

AsOceansWarm,theWorld’sKelpForestsBegintoDisappear

.YaleEnvironment360.20November.

24T.Hughesetal.2017.GlobalWarmingandRecurrentMassBleachingofCorals.Nature.543(7645).pp.373–377.

25J.Cybulskietal.2020.CoralReefDiversityLossesinChina’sGreaterBayAreaWereDrivenbyRegionalStressors.ScienceAdvances.6(40).

26B.Kangetal.2021.ClimateChangeImpactsonChina’sMarineEcosystems.ReviewsinFishBiologyandFisheries.31.pp.599?629.

27W.Cheungetal.2009.ProjectingGlobalMarineBiodiversityImpactsUnderClimateChangeScenarios.FishandFisheries.10(3).pp.235?251.

28S.Maetal.2023.ClimateRiskstoFishingSpeciesandFisheriesintheChinaSeas.ScienceoftheTotalEnvironment.857.Part1.159325.

29S.Clue.2021.

ChinaWaterRisk

.22November.

30WorldBank.2022.

China:CountryClimateandDevelopmentReport

.

31M.Huangetal.2022.IncreasingTyphoonImpactandEconomicLossesDuetoAnthropogenicWarminginSoutheastChina.ScientificReports.12(1).14048.

32R.Elliott,E.Strobl,andP.Sun.2015.TheLocalImpactofTyphoonsonEconomicActivityinChina:AViewfromOuterSpace.JournalofUrbanEconomics.88.pp.50?66.

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Climate-ResilientOceanGovernanceinthePeople’sRepublicofChina

Source-to-SeaManagement:TheYellowRiverEcologicalCorridorProgram

Integratedsource-to-seamanagementisanimportantcomponentforclimatechangeadaptationincoastalareas.Riverdischargedirectlyinfluencesnutrientandsedimentinputsintothecoastalzone,whichcanhavebothpositiveandnegativeeffectsonmarineecosystems.Propermanagementcanmitigateissueslikecoastalerosionandpollutionwhilefosteringahealthycoastalenvironment.Riverflowpatternsandwaterqualitysignificantlyaffectthelivelihoodsofcoastalcommunitiesandindustriesincludingfisheries,aquaculture,andtourism.

TheseinterlinkagesareparticularlypronouncedintheYellowRiverBasin.TheYellowRiveristhemostsediment-richriverintheworld,supportingextensive,fertilizer-richagricultureforhundredsofkilometersalongitsbanks.Adoptingacomprehensivesource-to-seamanagementapproachthatconsiderstheimpactsofupstreamactivitiesondownstreamareasisvitaltosafeguardthehealthandsustainabilityoftheoceanandcoastalecosystems.

Since2020,theAsianDevelopmentBankhassupportedtheGovernmentofthePeople'sRepublicofChinatostrengthenthesustainablemanagementofnaturalcapitalthroughtheYellowRiverEcologicalCorridor(YREC)Program.TheYRECutilizesacomprehensiveecosystem-basedmanagementapproachforwaterresourcesandlandmanagementbyviewingtheentireYellowRiverBasinasanecologicalcorridor,includingitscoastalareas.TheYRECincludesaprogramoflending,nonlending,andpolicyinterventionsacrossfourmainthematicareas:(i)naturalresourcesmanagementandbiodiversityconservation,(ii)climate-resilientandsustainable