英文【IMF】全球就業(yè)性別差距（英）2024

GENDER

NOTES

GlobalEmploymentGenderGaps

DiegoB.P.GomesandDharanaRijal

IMFGENDERNOTES2024/004

IMF|GenderNoteNOTE/2024/004

?2024InternationalMonetaryFund

GlobalEmploymentGenderGaps

DiegoB.P.GomesandDharanaRijalNOTE/2024/004

DISCLAIMER:TheIMFGenderNotesSeriesaimstoquicklydisseminatesuccinctIMFanalysisoncritical

economicissuestomembercountriesandthebroaderpolicycommunity.TheviewsexpressedinIMFGenderNotesarethoseoftheauthor(s),althoughtheydonotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsoftheIMF,orits

ExecutiveBoard,oritsmanagement.

RECOMMENDEDCITATION:Gomes,DiegoB.P.,andDharanaRijal.2024.“GlobalEmploymentGenderGaps.”IMFGenderNote2024/004,InternationalMonetaryFund,Washington,DC.

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IMF|GenderNoteii

Contents

GlobalEmploymentGenderGaps 1

Introduction 1

WhatDrivesEmploymentGenderGaps? 3

ADistributionalView 8

RevisitingtheCOVID-19She-Cession 11

Conclusion 16

Annex1.DescriptionoftheFramework 18

Annex2.DescriptionoftheData 19

Annex3.ChartsbyGeographicalArea 20

References 30

Figures

Figure1.GlobalGenderGapsinPopulationandEmployment 2

Figure2.GlobalEmploymentGenderGapDecomposition 4

Figure3.EmploymentGenderGapDecompositionforAdvancedEconomies 5

Figure4.EmploymentGenderGapDecompositionforEmergingMarkets 6

Figure5.EmploymentGenderGapDecompositionforLow-IncomeCountries 7

Figure6.GlobalDecompositionofEmploymentGenderGapChanges 11

Figure7.DecompositionofEmploymentGenderGapChangesforAdvancedEconomies 12

Figure8.DecompositionofEmploymentGenderGapChangesforEmergingMarkets 13

Figure9.DecompositionofEmploymentGenderGapChangesforLow-IncomeCountries 14

Tables

Table1.SummaryofEmploymentGenderGapDecomposition 8

Table2.DistributionofCountrieswithPositiveandNegativeEmploymentGenderGapsin2022 9

Table3.DistributionofCountriesbyMostandLeastImportantFactorsin2022 10

Table4.SummaryofDecompositionofEmploymentGenderGapChanges 15

IMF|GenderNoteNOTE/2024/004

GlobalEmploymentGenderGaps

DiegoB.P.GomesandDharanaRijalDecember2024

Thisnoteexaminesthefactorsbehindglobalemploymentgendergaps,highlightinglaborforce

participation(LFP)ratesasakeycontributor.Analysisof2022datashowsmostcountrieshavehigheremploymentformenthanforwomen,drivenmainlybyLFPratedifferences.TheCOVID-19pandemicworsenedthesegaps,particularlythroughitsimpactonLFPrates.ThestudyemphasizestheneedforpoliciestoboostfemaleLFPbyaddressingbothsupplyanddemandissuesinthelabormarketand

supportingwomen’sentryandretentionintheworkforce.

Introduction

Globally,menandwomeneachconstituteroughlyhalfofthepopulation,reflectinganaturalbalanceindemographicdistribution.However,thisinherentparityisnotreflectedinthelabormarket,whichexhibits

substantialinequalitiesinemploymentopportunitiesandoutcomesbetweengenders.Despitetheequal

demographicsplit,asignificantlyhighernumberofmenareemployedcomparedtowomen,underscoringa

pervasivedisparitythataffectseconomicparticipationandempowermentworldwide.Figure1tracksthemen-to-womenratiofortheworldpopulationandemploymentamongindividualsaged15andolderfrom1991to2023.

1

Thepopulationratioremainsstableandclosetoone,indicatinganear-equalnumberofmenandwomenacrosstheyears.However,theemploymentratiohasconsistentlyremainedabove1.5,implyingthatmenareover50

percentmorelikelytobeemployedthanwomen,adisparitythathasnotimprovedoverthe32-yearperiod

covered.Thispersistentdiscrepancyrevealsenduringgenderinequalityinthegloballabormarket,emphasizingacriticalneedforpolicyinterventionandeffortstoincreasewomen’semploymentlevels.

Closingemploymentgendergapsisessentialforeconomicstabilityandgrowth.Equalworkforceparticipationbywomenincreasesthelaborsupply,enrichesthetalentpool,fostersinclusiveeconomicgrowth,andboosts

productivityandinnovation.

2

High-qualityfemaleemploymentraiseshouseholdincomesandreduces

inequalities,enhancingeconomicdemandandstability.Addressingthesedisparitiesisbothamatteroffairnessandastrategicmoveforsustainabledevelopment.TheefforttonarrowemploymentgendergapsisintrinsicallyalignedwithbroadermacroeconomicobjectivesanddelineatestheIMF’scommitmenttointegratinggender

considerationsintoeconomicanalysisandpolicyadvice,withtheaimofassistingmembercountriesinattainingsustainablegrowthandeconomicstability(IMF2022,2024).

1Theterms“world”and“global”inthisnoterefertothe180countriesincludedintheInternationalLabourOrganization(ILO)databasethatarepartoftheIMFmembership.

2Togainaclearerunderstandingofwhethergenderinequalitieshindergrowth,Agte,andothers(2024)examineanemergingliteraturethatshowsthatreducinggendergapsinlabormarketsboostsaggregateproductivity.

IMF|GenderNote2

Figure1.GlobalGenderGapsinPopulationandEmployment

GenderGaps

PopulationEmployment

Ratioofmentowomen,ages15+

1.6

1.5--------m-------------------"---?-------------、.

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

1.41.31.21.11.00.90.8

Source:IMFstaffcalculationsbasedondatafromtheIMFGenderDataHub.TheoriginalsourceofthedataisobtainedfromtheInternationalLabourOrganization(ILO).

Thisnoteusesastructuredaccountingframeworktoexplorethedriversofglobalemploymentgendergaps,analyzingdifferentincomegroupsandgeographicalareas.Thegapsarebrokenintothreeparts:(1)genderdifferencesinpopulationdistribution;(2)genderdifferencesinLFPrates;and(3)genderdifferencesin

employmentrates,conditionalonbelongingtothelaborforce.Bymeasuringthesegapsasmale-to-female

ratiosandusinglogarithmictransformations,theanalysiscanpreciselyquantifythefactorsresponsibleforthegapinlevelsandthefactorscontributingthemosttoitsrateofchange.Annex1detailsthisframework,andAnnex2describesthedataused.

Thismethodologyimprovestheunderstandingofkeyfactorscontributingtoemploymentgendergaps,offeringa

structuredapproachforevaluatingprogressandidentifyingenduringchallenges.Itprovidespolicymakerswithdetailedinsightsintothecausesofthesedisparities,aidinginthedevelopmentoftargetedinterventions.By

systematicallybreakingdownthesegapsintospecificcomponents,theframeworksupportsthecreationofbothreactiveandproactivepolicymeasures,preventingtheworseningofdisparities.Additionally,thequantitative

analysisofeachcomponent’scontributiontotheevolutionofemploymentgendergapsenablesthestrategic

allocationofresources,prioritizingareaswiththemostsubstantialpotentialtonarrowthesegaps.This

evidence-basedapproachbolsterstheefficacyandsustainabilityofpoliciesaimedatpromotinggenderequalityinthelabormarket,aligningwiththebroadergoalsofsustainableeconomicdevelopmentandsocialequity.

Globally,gendergapsinLFPratesaretheprimaryfactorcontributingtoemploymentgendergaps,accountingfornearlytheentiredisparity.Incontrast,gapsinemploymentratesandpopulationsharesgenerallyhave

negligiblecontributions.Advancedeconomies(AEs)showadecreasingemploymentgendergapovertime,

primarilydrivenbyLFPratedisparities.Interestingly,populationsharescontributenegatively,indicatingthat

despiteahigherproportionofwomenintheseeconomies,theiremploymentratesremainlowercomparedtomen’s.Emergingmarkets(EMs),however,displayanincreasingemploymentgendergap,againdrivenmainlybyLFPratedifferences.Inthesemarkets,theemploymentratemarginoftenoffsetsthistrend,withpopulationshareshavingaminimalpositiveinfluence.Low-incomecountries(LICs)exhibitastableemploymentgendergap,dominatedbyLFPratedisparities.Here,theemploymentratemarginhasgrowninrelevanceovertime,whereaspopulationsharescontributenegatively,reflectingthatahigherproportionofwomendoesnot

necessarilytranslateintohigheremployment.

IMF|GenderNote3

Adistributionalperspectiveofthemostrecentdatashowsthatabout94percentofcountrieshadpositive

employmentgendergapsin2022,withmenmorelikelytobeemployedthanwomen.Thispatternspansvariousincomegroupsandgeographicalareas.GendergapsinLFPratesarethemainfactorbehindtheseemploymentgapsacrossallcontexts.Conversely,gapsintheemploymentratefrequentlyappearastheleastimportant

factor,withgapsinpopulationsharesplayingavariablebutgenerallyminorrole.Movingforward,thesefindingsemphasizetheneedforabetterunderstandingoftheunderlyingcausesofLFPdisparities.

Thedecompositionofchangesinemploymentgendergapswasfurtherleveragedtorevisitthepandemic’s

effectonemploymentgendergaps,aphenomenonknownasthe“COVID-19She-cession.”

3

Theonsetofthepandemicin2020significantlywidenedtheglobalemploymentgendergap,primarilybecauseofchangesin

LFPrates,withtheemploymentratemarginpartiallyoffsettingthiswidening.Between2020and2021,there

wasanoticeablenarrowingoftheemploymentgendergapdrivenmainlybyimprovementsinLFPrates,despitetheemploymentratemarginslightlywideningthegap.From2021to2022,theemploymentgendergap

increasedagain,drivenbychangesinallthreemargins,withtheLFPratemarginbeingthemostsignificantcontributor.Thepandemic’seffectvariedacrossdifferenteconomiccontexts,withAEs,EMs,andLICs

exhibitingdistinctpatternsinthecontributingfactorstochangesinemploymentgendergaps.

GiventhecriticalrolethatgendergapsinLFPplayintheresults,itisessentialtounderstandthemaindriversbehindthelowerparticipationofwomen.Avarietyofbarriersonboththesupplyanddemandsidesofthelabormarketlimitwomen’sparticipationintheworkforce(SahayandRawlings2023).Onthesupplyside,constraintsincludegenderdifferencesinendowments(forexample,technicalandsocioemotionalskills,assets,and

networks),timelimitsbecauseofhouseholdandcareobligations,andrestrictedmobility.Onthedemandside,women’sparticipationislimitedbyamismatchamongskills,education,andjobrequirements,gendergapsanddiscriminationinrecruitingandretention,andinsufficientbenefitsforchildcare,maternityleave,reentry

programs,andcareerprogression.Furthermore,inmanycontexts,aslowjobcreationprocessandalackofbusinessdynamismhinderthegenerationofnewemploymentopportunities,whichcancreatefurther

disincentivesforwomentoremaininorjointhelaborforce.Finally,socialandculturalnorms,alongside

restrictivepoliciesandlaws,oftenreinforcethesebarriersandseverelylimitwomen’sabilitytoenterorreenterthelabormarket.

WhatDrivesEmploymentGenderGaps?

Theanalysisbeganbyanalyzingtheglobalemploymentgendergapdecompositioninlevels,directly

addressingthefactorscontributingtothisdisparity.Figure2plotstheglobaldecompositionforindividualsaged15andolderfrom1991to2022,withtheblacklinerepresentingtheoverallemploymentgendergapandthe

barsrepresentingitscomponents,allinlogarithmicunits.TheLFPratecomponent,representedbythelight

bluebars,isthemostsignificantcontributortotheglobalemploymentgendergapovertheperiod,explaining

nearlytheentiredisparity,indicatingthatdifferencesinLFPbetweenmenandwomenaretheprimarydriverofemploymentgaps.Theemploymentratecomponent,indicatedbytheredbars,isnegligiblecomparedwiththeLFPrate,indicatingthatonceindividualsareinthelaborforce,thedisparityinobtainingemploymentbetweenmenandwomenislesspronounced.Representedbythedarkbluebars,thecontributionofpopulationsharestothegenderemploymentgapisbothminimalandnegative,whichisexpectedfromaglobalperspective.ThisisconsistentwiththedatashowninFigure1,whichdisplayedasteadydemographicbalancebetweenmenandwomenglobally,asseenbynear-equalmen-to-womenratiosinpopulationacrosstime,albeitslightlylessthanone.Thisstabilityindicatesthatdemographicfactorsdonotsignificantlyinfluencetheemploymentgendergapatthegloballevel.

3Forcountry-specificstudiesontheCOVID-19She-cession,seeFabrizio,Gomes,andTavares(2021,2024),AlbanesiandKim(2021),

Alonandothers(2022a),Alonandothers(2022b),Goldin(2022),Bluedornandothers(2023).

IMF|GenderNote4

Figure2.GlobalEmploymentGenderGapDecomposition

EmploymentGenderGapDecomposition

Ratioofmentowomeninlogarithmicunits,ages15+

EmploymentRateLFPRatePopulationShareEmployment

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0

-0.1

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

Source:IMFstaffcalculationsbasedondatafromtheIMFGenderDataHub.TheoriginalsourceofthedataisobtainedfromtheInternationalLabourOrganization(ILO).

Note:LFP=laborforceparticipation.

Next,thedriversofemploymentgendergapswereinvestigatedacrossdifferentgroupsofcountries,segmentedbyincomelevel,includingAEs,EMs,andLICs.Distinctpatternsweredocumentedacrossthesegroups.

StartingwithAEs,therehasbeenanoticeabledecreaseintheoverallemploymentgendergapovertime,

indicatedbythedownwardtrendoftheblackline(Figure3).ThemostsignificantcontributortothegendergapistheLFPratemargin,whichconsistentlyaccountsformostofthedisparity.

4

Incontrast,theemploymentratemargincontributesminimally,suggestingthatdifferencesinactualemploymentratesbetweengenders,oncetheyarepartofthelaborforce,arelesssignificant.Furthermore,gendergapsinthepopulationaccountforalargerandnoticeablynegativeportionoftheemploymentgap,meaningthatalthoughthenumberofwomeninthesecountriesishigherthanthenumberofmen,womenneverthelessfallwellshortofmenintermsoftotalemployment.

4ThisevidenceisconsistentwiththeresultsinChapter3oftheIMF’sApril2024WorldEconomicOutlook(WEO).Thechapter

demonstratesthatfemaleLFPincreasedsignificantlyacrossseveralAEsfrom2008to2021,particularlywhencomparedwithotherregions.Accordingtothechapter,thishashelpedAEsoffsetthenegativeeffectofsocietalagingonLFP.ItgoesontoarguethatthisshouldbeastrongmotivatorforpromotingfemaleLFPinavarietyofnon-advancedeconomieswithagingpopulations.

IMF|GenderNote5

Figure3.EmploymentGenderGapDecompositionforAdvancedEconomies

EmploymentGenderGapDecomposition

Ratioofmentowomeninlogarithmicunits,ages15+

EmploymentRateLFPRatePopulationShareEmployment

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0

-0.1

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

Source:IMFstaffcalculationsbasedondatafromtheIMFGenderDataHub.TheoriginalsourceofthedataisobtainedfromtheInternationalLabourOrganization(ILO).

Note:LFP=laborforceparticipation.

IncontrasttoAEs,theemploymentgendergapinEMshasbeenincreasingovertime,asindicatedbythe

upwardtrendoftheblacklineinFigure4.Again,thegendergapinLFPratesisthemostsignificantfactor,

accountingfornearlytheentiredisparitythroughouttheperiod,suggestingthatdifferencesinLFParethe

primarydriversoftheemploymentgapinthesemarkets.Theemploymentratemarginisnegligibleandoftennegative,meaningthatonceinthelaborforce,thedifferenceinemploymentratesbetweengendersisminimaloroccasionallyeveninfavorofwomen.Thecontributionfrompopulationsharesisverysmallbutconsistentlypositive,implyingaslightdemographicinfluenceontheemploymentgap.

IMF|GenderNote6

Figure4.EmploymentGenderGapDecompositionforEmergingMarkets

EmploymentGenderGapDecomposition

Ratioofmentowomeninlogarithmicunits,Ages15+

EmploymentRateLFPRatePopulationShareEmployment

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0

-0.1

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

Source:IMFstaffcalculationsbasedondatafromtheIMFGenderDataHub.TheoriginalsourceofthedataisobtainedfromtheInternationalLabourOrganization(ILO).

Note:LFP=laborforceparticipation.

UnlikeAEsandEMs,theemploymentgendergapinLICshasremainedstableovertime,asindicatedbythe

steadyblacklineinFigure5.TheLFPratemargincontinuestobethemostsignificantcontributortothe

employmentgendergap,underscoringthepersistentchallengesinlabormarketaccessforwomen.However,theemploymentratemarginhasgraduallybecomemoresignificantandpositiveovertheyears,althoughit

remainssmallcomparedwiththeLFPratemargin.Thisindicatesagrowingdisparityinemploymentrates

betweenmenandwomenwhoareactiveinthelaborforce.Thepopulationsharescomponentshowsmore

considerableandconsistentlynegativecontributions,indicatingthatdespiteahigherproportionofwomeninthepopulation,theiremploymentlevelslagsignificantlybehindthoseofmen.

IMF|GenderNote7

Figure5.EmploymentGenderGapDecompositionforLow-IncomeCountries

EmploymentGenderGapDecomposition

Ratioofmentowomeninlogarithmicunits,ages15+

EmploymentRateLFPRatePopulationShareEmployment

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0

-0.1

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

Source:IMFstaffcalculationsbasedondatafromtheIMFGenderDataHub.Theoriginalsourceofthedataisobtainedfromthe

InternationalLabourOrganization(ILO).Note:LFP=laborforceparticipation.

Insummary,thedecompositionoftheemploymentgendergapacrossAEs,EMs,andLICsrevealsnotable

differencesandsimilaritiesinthedynamicsinfluencinggenderdisparitiesinemployment.AcommonsimilarityacrossallregionsisthesignificantinfluenceofgendergapsinLFPratesandthegenerallysmallcontributionoftheemploymentratemargintotheoverallgenderemploymentgap.Thisunderscorestheuniversalchallengeofincreasingwomen’sparticipationinthelaborforceaspivotaltoreducingemploymentdisparities,although

differencesinactualemploymentopportunities,onceinthelaborforce,arelesssignificant.Intermsof

differences,bothAEsandLICsexhibitsmallandnegativecontributionsfromgendergapsinthepopulation,suggestingahigherfemaledemographicnotreflectedinemploymentfigures.Conversely,inEMs,the

contributionofpopulationsharesisnegligible,indicatingaminimaldemographiceffectontheemployment

gendergap.Inaddition,theemploymentratecomponenthasgrowninrelevanceinLICswhileremaining

relativelyinsignificantinAEsandEMs.Furthermore,althoughtheemploymentgendergaphasbeendecreasinginAEs,itisincreasinginEMsandremainsstableinLICs.Thesevariationsunderscoredifferentsocioeconomicdynamicsandemphasizetheneedforregion-specificinterventionstoaddressandmitigatetheunderlying

factorsoftheemploymentgendergapeffectively.

Table1summarizesthemajorfindings,highlightingthetrendaswellasthemainandleastcontributingfactorstotheemploymentgendergapacrossdifferentcountrygroupsover1991–2022.Inadditiontotheincome-based

groups,thetableincludesfindingsforgroupsbasedongeographicalareas.Detailedchartsforgeographical

areasareprovidedinAnnex3.Toavoidrepetitionandtosaveonspace,descriptionsoftheresultsfor

geographicalareasarenotincludedinthemainbodyofthenote,buttheyfollowthesamelogicandmechanicsasthoseprovidedforincome-levelgroups.

IMF|GenderNote8

Table1.SummaryofEmploymentGenderGapDecomposition

1991–2022Trend

MainContributor

LeastContributor

World

Stable

LFPrate

EMPrate

Byincomelevel

Advancedeconomies

Decreasing

LFPrate

EMPrate

Emergingmarkets

Increasing

LFPrate

EMPrate

Low-incomecountries

Bygeographicalareas

Stable

LFPrate

EMPrate

Africa

U-shaped

LFPrate

EMPrate

AsiaandthePacific

Increasing

LFPrate

EMPrate

Europe

Decreasing

LFPrate

EMPrate

MiddleEastandCentralAsia

Decreasing

LFPrate

POPshare

WesternHemisphere

Decreasing

LFPrate

EMPrate

Source:IMFstaffcalculationsbasedondatafromtheIMFGenderDataHub.TheoriginalsourceofthedataisobtainedfromtheInternationalLabourOrganization(ILO).

Note:Themainandleastcontributorsareidentifiedbasedontheabsolutevaluesofalldecompositionfactors.EMP=employment;LFP=laborforceparticipation;POP=population.

ADistributionalView

Inthissection,adistributionalanalysiswasundertakenofthemainfactorsexplainingemploymentgendergapsusingthemostrecentavailabledatafrom2022.Thisbeganbyexaminingthefractionsofcountrieswithpositiveandnegativeemploymentgendergapstounderstandtheprevailingtrendsandthecurrentstateoftheissue.

Afterthis,shareofcountrieswhereeachfactoremergesasthemostandleastimportantinexplainingthesegapswasanalyzed.Thisanalysisisconductedonaglobalscaleandfurthersegmentedbyincomeand

geographicalgroups,providingacomprehensiveviewofthediversedynamicsinfluencingemploymentgenderdisparitiesacrossdifferentcontexts.

Thedistributionalanalysisofcountrieswithpositiveandnegativeemploymentgendergapsin2022revealsaconsistentglobaltrend:thevastmajorityofcountriesstillexhibitpositiveemploymentgendergaps,indicatingthatmenaremorelikelytobeemployedthanwomen(Table2).Specifically,about94percentofcountries

worldwidehaveapositivegap,whereasonlysixpercenthaveanegativegap.Thispatternholdsacross

IMF|GenderNote9

differentincomegroupsandgeographicalareas.Allgroupsshowahighprevalenceofpositiveemployment

gendergaps,withmorethan92percentofcountriesineachcategorydisplayingthistrend.Thesefindings

underscoreawidespreadandpersistentissueofgenderdisparityinemploymentacrossdiverseeconomicandregionalcontexts.

Table2.DistributionofCountrieswithPositiveandNegativeEmploymentGenderGapsin2022

Quantity

Frequency(%)

Negative

Positive

Total

Negative

Positive

Total

World

11

168

179

6.1

93.9

100.0

Byincomelevel

Advancedeconomies

3

35

38

7.9

92.1

100.0

Emergingmarkets

4

79

83

4.8

95.2

100.0

Low-incomecountries

Bygeographicalareas

4

54

58

6.9

93.1

100.0

Africa

3

42

45

6.7

93.3

100.0

AsiaandthePacific

2

30

32

6.3

93.8

100.0

Europe

3

38

41

7.3

92.7

100.0

MiddleEastandCentralAsia

2

28

30

6.7

93.3

100.0

WesternHemisphere

1

30

31

3.2

96.8

100.0

Source:IMFstaffcalculationsbasedondatafromtheIMFGenderDataHub.TheoriginalsourceofthedataisobtainedfromtheInternationalLabourOrganization(ILO).

Theanalysisofthedistributionofcountriesbymostandleastimportantfactorsin2022alsorevealsaclear

globaltrend:theLFPrateisoverwhelminglythemostimportantfactoracrossallcontexts(Table3).Globally,

andconsistentlyacrossdifferentincomegroupsandgeographicalareas,