創(chuàng)新大學(xué)英語綜合教程U2電子教案

UnitTwoLookUpattheStarsSuggestedTeachingStepsLead-inTextAWord&SentenceStudyStructureStudyAfter-readingAdditionalMaterialsLead-inDirections:Pleasewatchthevideoclipandanswerthequestions.l.whowasthespeaker?whatdoyouknowabouthim?2.Accordingtothespeaker,whataretheambitiousexperimentsplannedforthefuture?Tips:StephenHawking(l942—20l8)wastheformerLucasianProfessorofMathematicsattheUniversityofCambridgeandauthorofABriefHisloryofTimewhichisaninternationalbestseller.Wewillmapthepositionsofbillionsofgalaxies,betterunderstandourplaceintheuniverse,andcontinuetoexplorespace.TextATheUniverseGivesupItsDeepestsecret0neofthegreatestmysteriesoftheuniverseisabouttobeunraveledwiththefirstdetailed,threedimensionalmapofdarkmatter—theinvisiblematerialthatmakesupmostofthecosmos.Astronomersannouncedyesterdaythattheyhaveachievedtheapparentlyimpossibletaskofcreatingapictureofsomethingthathasdefiedeveryattempttodetectitsinceitsexistencewasfirstpostulatedinl933.Scientistshaveknownformanyyearsthatthereismoretotheuniversethancanbeseenordetectedthroughtheirtelescopesbutitisonlynowthattheyhavebeenabletocapturethefirstsignificant3Dimageofthisotherwiseinvisiblematerial.Unliketheordinarymatteroftheplanets,starsandgalaxies,whichcanbeseenthroughtelescopesordetectedbyscientificinstruments,nobodyhasseendarkmatterorknowswhatitismadeof,thoughcalculationssuggestthatitisatleastsixtimesbiggerthantherestofthevisibleuniversecombined.Ateamof70astronomersfromEurope,AmericaandJapanusedtheHubbleSpaceTelescopetobuildupapictureofdarkmatterinavastregionofspacewheresomeofthegalaxiesdatebacktohalftheageoftheuniverse—nearly7billionyears.Theyusedaphenomenonknownasgravitationallensing,firstpredictedbyAlbertEinstein,toinvestigateanareaoftheskyninetimesthesizeofafullmoon.Gravitationallensingoccurswhenlightfromdistantgalaxiesisbentbythegravitationalinfluenceofanymatterthatitpassesonitsjourneythroughspace.Thescientistswereabletoexploitthetechniquebycollectingthedistortedlightfromhalfamillionfarawaygalaxiestoreconstructsomeofthemissingmassoftheuniversewhichisotherwiseinvisibletoconventionaltelescopes.“Wehave,forthefirsttime,mappedthelarge-scaledistributionofdarkmatterintheuniverse,”theleadingscientistsaid.“Darkmatterisamysteriousandinvisibleformofmatter,aboutwhichweknowverylittle,yetitdominatesthemassoftheuniverse.”O(jiān)neofthemostimportantdiscoveriestoemergefromthestudyisthatdarkmatterappearstoformaninvisiblescaffoldorskeletonaroundwhichthevisibleuniversehasformed.Althoughcosmologistshavetheorizedthatthiswouldbethecase,thefindingsaredramaticproofthattheircalculationsarecorrectandthat,withoutdarkmatter,theknownuniversethatwecanseewouldnotbeabletoexist.“Afilamentarywebofdarkmatteristhreadedthroughtheentireuniverse,andactsasscaffoldingwithinwhichtheordinarymatter—includingstars,galaxiesandplanets—canlaterbebuilt,”theleadingscientistsaid.“Themostsurprisingaspectofourmapishowunsurprisingitis.Overall,weseemtounderstandreallywellwhathappensduringtheformationofstructureandtheevolutionoftheuniverse,”hesaid.Thethree-dimensionalmapofdarkmatterwasbuiltupbytakingslicesthroughdifferentregionsofspace;muchlikeamedicalCTscannerbuildsa3DimageofthebodybytakingdifferentX-ray“slices”intwodimensions.DatafromtheHubbletelescopewassupplementedbymeasurementsfromtelescopesontheground,suchastheVeryLargeTelescopeoftheEuropeanSouthernObservatoryandtheJapaneseSubarutelescope.DetailsofthedarkmattermapwerereleasedyesterdayattheannualmeetingoftheAmericanAstronomicalsocietyinSeattleandpublishedonlinebythejournalNature.Themapstretcheshalfwaybacktothebeginningoftheuniverseandshowsthatdarkmatterhasformedinto“clumps”asitcollapsedundergravity.Othermatterthengroupedaroundtheseclumpstoformthevisiblestars,galaxiesandplanets.“The3Dinformationisvitaltostudyingtheevolutionofthestructuresovercosmictime,”saidanotherfamousscientist.Astronomershavecomparedthetaskofdetectingdarkmattertothedifficultyofphotographingacityatnightfromtheairwhenonlystreetlightsarevisible.Scientistssaidthenewimageswereequivalenttoseeingacity,itssuburbsandcountryroadsindaylightforthefirsttime.Majorarteriesandintersectionsbecomeevidentandavarietyofneighborhoodsarerevealed.“Nowthatwehavebeguntomapoutwheredarkmatteris,thenextchallengeistodeterminewhatitis,andspecificallyitsrelationshiptonormalmatter,”theleadingscientistsaid.“Wehaveansweredthefirstquestionaboutwherethedarkmatteris,buttheultimategoalwillbetodeterminewhatitis.”VariousexperimentsonEarthareunderwaytotrytofindoutwhatdarkmatterismadeof.Onetheoryisthatitiscomposedofmysterioussub-atomicparticlesthataredifficulttodetectbecausetheydonotinteractwithordinarymatterandsocannotbepickedupandidentifiedbyconventionalscientificinstruments.Comparingthemapsofvisiblematteranddarkmatterhasalreadypointedtoanomaliesthatcouldprovecriticaltotheunderstandingofwhatconstitutesdarkmatter.DetailedStudy(Para.2)Astronomersannouncedyesterdaythattheyhaveachievedtheapparentlyimpossibletaskofcreatingapictureofsomethingthathasdefiedeveryattempttodetectitsinceitsexistencewasfirstpostulatedinl933.【譯文】昨天，天文學(xué)家聲明：他們已完成了在此之前看似不可能完成的任務(wù)——自l933年假設(shè)暗物質(zhì)存在以來，人們一直嘗試構(gòu)建它的圖像，但每次均以失敗告終。此句是由“that”引導(dǎo)的賓語從句，在賓語從句中是由“since”引導(dǎo)的時間狀語從句。“since”意為“自……以來”。e.g.ItwasthefirsttimeIdwonsinceIlearnttoplaychess.“since”作為副詞，有“后來”之意：e.g.ShemovedtoLondonlastMayandhassincegotajobatanewspaper.“since”作為介詞，意為“自從”：e.g.Educationhasmaderapidprogresssinceliberation.defyvt.(l)topresentobstaclestopreventsth.使……成為不可能，使……落空e.g.Thebeautyofthescenedefiesdescription.(2)torefusetoobeyorshowrespectforsb.inauthority,alaw,arule,etc.違(反)抗，藐(蔑)視e.g.Iwouldnthavedaredtodefymyteachers.Hundredsofpeopletodaydefiedthebanonpoliticalgatherings.defiancen.e.g.Hisdefianceofthelawcosthimdearly.detect:vt.tonoticeordiscoversth.,especiallysth.thatisnoteasytosee,hear,etc.發(fā)現(xiàn)，察覺，探測e.g.Manyformsofcancercanbecuredifdetectedearly.Dandetectedachangeinhermood.detectable:adj.可察覺的，易發(fā)現(xiàn)的e.g.Thenoiseisbarelydetectablebythehumanear.(Para.3)...butitisonlynowthattheyhavebeenabletocapturethefirstsignificant3Dimageofthisotherwiseinvisiblematerial.【譯文】但直到現(xiàn)在，科學(xué)家們才首次捕捉到了這一本不可見的物質(zhì)的三維圖形。本句是強調(diào)句，強調(diào)時間。Itis(was)+狀語+that+句子，此結(jié)構(gòu)用來強調(diào)狀語，充當(dāng)狀語的可以是單詞、詞組或者從句，可以強調(diào)時間、地點、時間狀語從句、地點狀語從句和主語從句。ItwasyesterdaythatIboughtthebookinthebookstore.(強調(diào)時間)ItwasinthebookstorethatIboughtthebookyesterday.(強調(diào)地點)ItwasonlywhenIbadlyneededthebookthatIboughtityesterday.(強調(diào)時間狀語從句)Itwasbecause(不用Since,why,as)IbadlyneededthebookthatIboughtityesterday.(強調(diào)原因狀語從句)Itiswhatyoudothatisimportant.(強調(diào)主語從句)capturevt.(l)tosucceedinrecording,showing,ordescribingasituationorfeeling,usingwordsorpictures捕捉，抓取，獲得e.g.Iclosedmyeyestightlytocapturethepicturefirmlyinmymind.(2)tocatchapersonandkeephim/herasaprisoner俘虜(獲)e.g.Governmenttroopshavesucceededincapturingtherebelleader.capture:n.theactofcapturingsb./sth.orofbeingcaptured俘(捕)獲，占領(lǐng)e.g.Thesoldierplayeddeadtoescapecapturebytheenemy.otherwiseadv.(l)exceptforwhathasjustbeenmentioned除此以外e.g.Hewastiredbutotherwiseingoodhealth.Thisspoiledanotherwiseexcellentpieceofwork.(2)inanotheroradifferentway用別的方法，不同地e.g.we’llgettheresomehow,byboatorotherwise.otherwiseconj.ifconditionsweredifferent;ifnot…否則，不然e.g.Putthecapbackonthebottle,otherwisethejuicewillspill.Wemustrun,otherwisewe’llbetoolate.(Para.8)Darkmatterisamysteriousandinvisibleformofmatter,aboutwhichweknowverylittle,yetitdominatesthemassoftheuniverse.【譯文】暗物質(zhì)占據(jù)著宇宙的大部分，它是一種神秘又難觀測到的物質(zhì)，我們對其所知甚少。dominatevt.(1)tocontrolorhavealotofinfluenceoversb./sth.,ofteninanunpleasantway支配，統(tǒng)治e.g.Spainoncedominatedtheseas.Intelevision,threenetworksclearlydominatethemarketofAmericanviewers.(2)tobethemostimportantornoticeablefeatureofsth.在……中占主要地位e.g.Thetraincrashdominatedthenews.Sports,thoughimportant,shouldnotdominateourschools.dominationn.支配，統(tǒng)治，控制e.g.Shehasbeenunderthedominationofherfathersincechildhood.4.(Para.10)Althoughcosmologistshavetheorizedthatthiswouldbethecase,thefindingsaredramaticproofthattheircalculationsarecorrectandthat,withoutdarkmatter,theknownuniversethatwecanseewouldnotbeabletoexist.【譯文】雖然宇宙學(xué)家已從理論上闡明了暗物質(zhì)的存在，但這組發(fā)現(xiàn)明確地證實了宇宙學(xué)家的測算是正確的，同時也證明了如果沒有暗物質(zhì)，我們已知的這個世界就不可能存在。本句為“although”引導(dǎo)的讓步狀語從句，主句為“that”引導(dǎo)的同位語從句補充和說明“proof”。theorizevt.(1)tothinkofapossibleexplanationforaneventorfact推理e.g.Researcherstheorizethattherewasonceacommonlanguageforallhumanity.Itisagravemistaketotheorizebeforeonehasdata.(2)toformatheoryortheoriesaboutsth.建立理論，理論化e.g.scientistshavetheorizedaboutdarkmatterforaboutseventyyears.dramaticadj.(l)excitingandimpressive激動人心的，給人印象深刻的e.g.someofthemostdramaticeventsinAmericanhistoryhappenedhere.Heropeningwordsweredramatic.(2)greatandsudden劇烈的e.g.Thegovernmentisalarmedbythedramaticincreaseinviolentcrime.(3)connectedwiththetheaterorplays戲劇性的e.g.Anewdramaticproductionisplannedattheschoolafterthestartofnextsemester.(Para.12)Thethree-dimensionalmapofdarkmatterwasbuiltupbytakingslicesthroughdifferentregionsofspace;muchlikeamedicalCTscannerbuildsa3Dimageofthebodybytakingdifferentx-ray“slices”intwodimensions.【譯文】暗物質(zhì)的三維圖形是通過宇宙空間不同區(qū)域的橫切面構(gòu)建而成，它與醫(yī)學(xué)上的CT掃描儀通過X射線獲取人體二維截面以形成人體的三維成像非常相似。likeconj.inthesamewayas正如，像……那樣e.g.Nooneelsecanscoregoalslikehecan!Don’ttalktomelikeyoutalktoachild.(Para.14)Themapstretcheshalfwaybacktothebeginningoftheuniverseandshowsthatdarkmatterhasformedinto“clumps”asitcollapsedundergravity.【譯文】該圖形追溯到了宇宙發(fā)展的中期，展示了暗物質(zhì)在重力作用下分裂而形成的“暗物質(zhì)團”。stretchv.(1)tomakesth.Longer,wider,orlooser拉長，伸展e.g.Isthereanywayofstretchingshoes?(2)toextendorreach,ineithertimeorspace延伸e.g.Thewheatfieldstretchedtothehorizon.stretchn.actofstretchingorthestateofbeingstretched伸展，張開e.g.Thedogwokeup.hadagoodstretchandwanderedoff.collapsev.(1)tofalldownorfallinsuddenly,oftenafterbreakingapart倒(坍)塌e.g.Theroofcollapsedundertheweightofsnow.(2)toquicklygetworse,downtoaverylowpoint病倒，昏厥e.g.Hishealthcollapsedbecauseofoverwork.collapsen.倒塌，崩潰e.g.Thecollapseofthebuildingcausednocasualties.(Para.16)Astronomershavecomparedthetaskofdetectingdarkmattertothedifficultyofphotographingacityatnightfromtheairwhenonlystreetlightsarevisible.【譯文】天文學(xué)家認為，探測暗物質(zhì)的任務(wù)如同在只有街燈的夜間從空中拍攝城市景觀一樣艱難?！癱ompare…to…”意為“把……比作(喻為)”，“compare…with…”意為“與……相比”。e.g.ThecriticscomparedhisworktothatofMartinAmis.Wecarefullycomparedthefirstreportwiththesecond.Myownproblemsseeminsignificantcomparedwith(incomparisonto)otherpeoples.(Para.18)Nowthatwehavebeguntomapoutwheredarkmatteris,thenextchallengeistodeterminewhatitis...【譯文】既然我們已開始勾勒暗物質(zhì)所處的位置，那下一個挑戰(zhàn)就是搞清楚它是什么……“nowthat”引導(dǎo)讓步狀語從句，意為“既然，由于”。e.g.Nowthatyouareauniversitystudent,youshouldlearntobeindependentofyourparenthelp.NowthatIamfree,Icanenjoymusicforawhile.(Para.19)Comparingthemapsofvisiblematteranddarkmatterhasalreadypointedtoanomaliesthatcouldprovecritica1totheunderstandingofwhatconstitutesdarkmatter:Comparisonsmadebetweenvisiblemattermapsanddarkmattermapshaveshownsomeunusualaspects.whichcouldproveimportantfordiscoveringwhatdarkmatterismadeupof.【譯文】對可見物質(zhì)和暗物質(zhì)的圖片比較已證明了暗物質(zhì)的獨特之處，這對于理解暗物質(zhì)的構(gòu)成很關(guān)鍵。criticaladj.(1)extremelyimportantbecauseafuturesituationwillbeaffectedbyit危急時刻的，決定性的，關(guān)鍵的e.g.Thatwasacriticaltimeinthenationshistory.(2)(~ofsb./sth.)expressingdisapprovalofsb./sth.andsayingwhatyouthinkisbadaboutthem批評(判)的，評論性的e.g.Hereceivedseriouscriticalcommentsonhisinefficiencyatwork.constitutevt.(1)tobethepartsthattogetherformsth.組(構(gòu))成e.g.Therearemanydisparatepartsthattogetherconstituteacar.(2)toofficiallyformagroupororganization正式成(建)立e.g.Thecommitteehadbeenimproperlyconstituted,andthereforehadnolegalpower.StructureStudySummaryoftheTextDirections:Thetextcanbedividedintofourparts.Fi11intheb1ankswithappropriatewordsfromthetexttocompletethemainideaofeachpart.PartsParagraphsMainIdeasPartOneParas.l—2Astronomersannouncedthattheyhavebeenabletol)capturethefirstsignificant3D2)imageofdarkmatterwhichisotherwise3)invisible.PartTwoParas.3—7704)astronomersfromdifferentcountriesexploited5)gravitationallensingbycollectingthedistortedlightfromhalfamillionfarawaygalaxiesto6)reconstructsomeofthemissingmassoftheuniversebutnobodyknowswhatitismadeofeventhoughit7)dominatesthemassoftheuniverse.PartThreeParas.8—16Thescientistswanttoshowwhatthedarkmatterlookslike.8)0verall,itappearstoformaninvisiblescaffoldor9)skeletonwithinwhichtheordinarymatter—includingstars,galaxiesandplanets—canlaterbebuilt.PartFourParas.17—19Thescientistshavebeguntomapoutwheredarkmatteris,butourl0)ultimategoalwillbetodeterminewhatitis.Directions:Answerthefollowingquestionsaccordingtothetext.l)Werethemanyscientists,whohavetriedtodetectapictureoftheinvisiblematerialsinceitsexistencewasfirstpostulated,successful?No.Ithasdefiedeveryattempttodetectitsinceitsexistencewasfirstpostulatedinl933.Howdidscientistsusethephenomenonknownasgravitationallensing,firstpredictedbyAlbertEinstein,toreconstructsomeofthemissingmassoftheuniverse?Thescientistswereabletoexploitthistechniquebycollectingthedistortedlightfromhalfamillionfarawaygalaxiestoreconstructsomeofthemissingmassoftheuniverse.Howdidtheleadingscientistdescribethedarkmatter?Itlookslikeafilamentaryweb,whichisthreadedthroughtheentireuniverse,andactsasscaffoldingwithinwhichtheordinarymatter—includingstars,galaxiesandplanets—canlaterbebuilt.Isthestudyofthe3Dimageimportant?whyorwhynot?Yes.The3Dinformationisvitaltostudyingtheevolutionofthestructuresovercosmictime.Accordingtothetext,whydoscientistsmakeeffortstodetectdarkmatter?Becausewithoutdarkmatter,theknownuniversethatwecanseewouldnotbeabletoexist.After-readingKeytoExercises—Vocabulary1.1)skeleton2)released3)captured4)collapsed5)ultimate6)intersection7)otherwise8)equivalent9)defy10)distorting2.1)ThedesksarearrangedinaU-shape,sotheteachercaninteracteasilywiththestudents.2)Detectivesaretryingtobuildupapictureofthekidnapper.3)Usingatelescope,Galileodiscoveredstarsthatwereinvisibletothenakedeye.4)Ourpartnershipdatesbacktol960.5)Thesunemergedfrombehindtheclouds.6)Itisvitaltobehonestwithyourchildren.7)Theresearchprojecthasonlybeenunderwayforthreemonths,soitstooearlytoevaluateitssuccess.8)TheBritishParliamentiscomposedoftheHouseofCommonsandtheHouseofLords.KeytoExercises—Structure1.1)Nowthatweknoweachotherquitewell2)Nowthatthekidshavelefthome3)Nowthatyouhavegrownupandbecomeauniversitystudent4)NowthatIvepaidthetaxdemandedandthechildrensschoolfees5)Nowthatpricesarerisingsofast2.1)Thisbridgeovertheriveristhreetimesthelengthofthatone.2)Ourparentsbedroomistwicethesizeofmine.3)Thisswimmingpoolisfourtimesthewidthoftheoneunderconstruction.4)ItisreportedthatthemountainthatthemountaineersclimbedyesterdayistwicetheheightofTaibaiMountain.5)Wehavetoadmitthatthiswellisfivetimesthedepthofthatone.KeytoExercises—Clozesuperior2)approach3)bluntly4)egos5)conquered6)stable7)stagger8)imperfections9)signaling10)initiateKeytoExercises—Translation中國最新的載人航天飛船上周四與空間站對接成功，三名宇航員登上空間站，那里將是他們下周接下來一周的居住地。神舟十號對接空間實驗將由自動化控制。進入太空實驗室之后船員們換上了他們在空間內(nèi)的藍色連身衣。他們將在空間實驗室中停留l2天。期間，宇航員們將進行手動對接練習(xí)并開展科學(xué)實驗，他們還將提供一系列科學(xué)講座，提高中國太空計劃在青少年人群中的普及程度。After-readingActivityOne:TalkingaboutPicturesDirections:Fromoursmallworld,wehavegazeduponthecosmicoceanforuntoldthousandsofyears.Buttheyearssincel957haveamountedtoagoldenageofspaceexploration.Usethefollowingtabletohelpyousharewhatyouknowwithyourclassmates. TimeAfter-readingActivityTwo:PairWorkfETDirections:Doyoubelieveintheexistenceofintelligentextraterrestriallife?Ifyes,whatdoesitlooklike?Whatkindsofsuperpowerdoesithave?PicturetheimageofETinyourmindinthespaceprovidedbelowandlistthesuperpoweritpossesses.Thenplanaone-daytourforyourETfriendontheearth.yTourTimeAfter-readingActivityThree:DiscussionDirections:Breakupintogroupsanddiscussthefollowingquestions.Everyyear,billionsofdollarsarespentbytheworld’sspaceagencies,butdoesthismoneybringusanybenefit?Isspaceexplorationawasteofmoneyorshouldwepulltheplugandspendthemoneyelsewhere?AdditionalMaterialsActivityOneDirections:Howmuchdoyouknowabouttheuniversethatwearelivingin?Readthestatementsbelowanddecidewhetherthesefactsabouttheuniversearetrueorfalse.Referenceanswers:(T)l.Theuniverseisexpanding.(F)2.Thesunisagiantcomparedtootherstars.Thesunisamediumsizedstarabouthalfwaythroughitslifecycle.(T)3.Thelawsofphysicsbreakdownatthecenterofablackhole.(T)4.Thereareaninfinitenumberofparalleluniverses.(F)5.Thereareonlyafewknowngalaxiesthatexistintheuniverse.Thereareactuallyhundredsofbillionsofgalaxiesknowninouruniverse.ActivityTwoDirections:TherearevariousChineselegendsabouttheoriginoftheuniverse.Ingroupsof4or5,usethekeywordsinthetablebelowtotellthestoryofPanguandNüwa.ütoflingaropeTips:PanguSeparatestheSkyfromtheEarthChinahasahistorylongerthanthatofanyotherpresent-daynation,containingaplethoraofmythsandlegends.ThefirstfigurethatcreatedtheworldinChinashistorywasnamedPangu.Accordingtolegend,inthebeginning,therewasonlydarknessandchaos,andtheskyandtheearthwereoneblurredentity.Thisvast“egg”astheChinesecallit,wassubjecttotwoopposingforcesorprinciples.Theinteractionbetweenthetwoforces:theyin(passiveornegativefemaleprinciple)andtheyang(activeorpositivemaleprinciple)gavebirthtoPangu,causingtheeggsshelltocrack.Theseparationoftheskyandtheearthtookl8,000yearstocomplete:Theyang,whichwaslightandpure,rosetobecomethesky;theyin,whichwasheavyandmurky,sanktoformtheearth.BetweentheskyandtheearthwasPangu,whounderwentninechangeseveryday:hiswisdomisgreaterthanthatoftheskyandhisabilitygreaterthanthatoftheearth.Everydaytheskyrosetenfeet,theearthbecametenfeetthickerandPangugrewtenfeettaller.Anotherl8,000yearspassedandtheskywasveryhigh;theearth,denseandPangu,extremelytall.Hisbodythendissolvedandhisheadbecamethemountains;hisbreath,thewindandclouds;hisvoice,thethunder;hislefteye,thesunandhisrighteye,themoon.Pangusbeardbecamethestars;hisfourlimbs,thefourquadrantsoftheglobe;hisblood,theriversandhisveinsandmuscles,thelayersoftheearth.Hisfleshbecamethesoil;hisskinandhair,thetreesandplants;hissemen,pearls;hismarrow,preciousstonesandhissweatturnedintorain.Allinall,Panguandtheuniversebecameone.NüwaCreatesHumansInChinesemythology,Nüwaisthegoddessoforderwhocreatedhumans.Accordingtolegend,Nüwacametotheearthbeforetherewereanyhuman.Nüwabecamelonelyanddecidedtomakecopiesofherselffrommudinapool.Thefiguresshecreatedcametolifeandwanderedofftopopulatetheearth.Afterawhile,Nüwarealizedthatitwouldtaketoolongtofilltheearthwithpeopleifshemadeeachonebyhand.soshetookarope,dippeditintothemud,andflungthedropsofmudinalldirections.Eachdropbecameaseparatehumanbeing.BackgroundInformationDarkMatterLearningaboutdarkmatterhelpsdeterminetheshapeoftheuniverse,becausetheshapeoftheuniversedependsonthekindofstuffinit.Moreover,becausedarkmattercomprisessuchalargeamountoftheuniverse,understandingitsnatureandbehaviorareintegral.FritzZwickywasthepioneerinthisfield.Inl933,attheCaliforniaInstituteofTechnology,theSwissastrophysicistZwickywasthefirsttotheorizedarkmatterafterheobservedthattherewas400timesthemassintheComaclusterofgalaxiesthanthere“should”havebeenorthathehadexpectedtheretobe.AccordingtoZwicky,theremusthavebeensomethingthatcouldn’tbeseenthataccountedfortherestofthismass.Furthermore,hecametoanotherconclusionbylookingatgroupsofgalaxiestensofmillionsoflight-yearsawayfromoneanother.Zwickyobservedthattheirrelativespeedsweremuchtoogreatforthemtobeheldtogetherbythegravitationalattractionofthevisiblematteralone,andthattherefore,theremusthavebeensomethingelseholdingthemtogether.Hecalledthissomethingelse“invisiblematter”or“darkmatter”.Andthenotherdiscoveriessprangforth.Inl950,awomannamedVeraRubinmadeanotherstartlingdiscovery.Newton’slawspredictedthatbodiesorbitingaroundacentermovemoreslowlythefarthertheyarefromthatcenter.Instead,RubinsconclusionscontradictedNewtonianlaws.shebuiltonthetheoriesofZwickytodiscoverthatgalaxiesshowedan“extramotion”:byexamininggalacticlightsignatures,shefoundthatbodiesorbitingaroundtheoutskirtsofgalaxiestraveledatapproximatelythesamespeedasthebodiesorbitingnearthecenterofagalaxy,thereforesomeothermatterhadtoexistintheoutskirts,somematterthatwecouldn’tsee,thatwasactinguponthevisiblebodies.Thepunchlinewasdarkmatter.Overthesecondhalfofthe20thCenturymanyotherimportantcontributionstotheoriesofdarkmatterhavebeenmadebythelikesofMordehaiMilgromandYakovZel’dovich.However,themostimportantthingtorememberinlearningaboutthehistoryofdarkmattertheoriesisthatthereisalwaysroomforimprovement,alwaysanewwaytothinkaboutthings,alwaysanewwaytowidenourmindstocrucialquestionsabouttheuniverse.2.HubbleSpaceTelescopeTheHubbleSpaceTelescope(HST)isaspacetelescopethatwascarriedintoorbitbythespaceshuttleDiscoveryinAprill990.ItisnamedaftertheAmericanastronomerEdwinHubble.Althoughnotthefirstspacetelescope,theHubbleisoneofthelargestandmostversatile,andiswell-knownasbothavitalresearchtoolandapublicrelationsboonforastronomy.TheHubbleistheonlytelescopeeverdesignedtobeservicedinspacebyastronauts.Todate,therehavebeenfourservicingmissions.servicingMissionltookplaceinDecemberl993whenHubble’simagingflawwascorrected.servicingmissions2,3A,and3Brepairedvarioussub-systemsandreplacedmanyoftheobservinginstrumentswithmoremodernandcapableversions.3.EuropeanSouthernObservatoryTheEuropeanSou