人機(jī)工程與綠色設(shè)計

ProductDesignErgonomicsergon

(work)+nomos

(laws)=ErgonomicErgonomicsGeneralErgonomicsisthescienceoffittingjobstopeople.Thedisciplineencompassesabodyofknowledgeaboutphysicalabilities

andlimitationsaswellasotherhumancharacteristicsthatarerelevanttojobdesign.Essentially,ergonomicsistherelationshipbetweentheworkerandthejobandfocusesonthedesignofworkareastoenhancejobperformance.Ergonomicscanhelppreventinjuriesandlimitsecondaryinjuriesaswellasaccommodateindividualswithvariousdisabilities,includingthosewithmusculoskeletaldisorders(MSDs).DisciplineErgonomics–Ergonomics(orhumanfactors)isthescientificdisciplineconcernedwiththeunderstandingofinteractionsamonghumansandotherelementsofasystem,andtheprofessionthatappliestheory,principles,dataandmethodstodesigninordertooptimizehumanwell-beingandoverallsystemperformance.(accordingInternationalErgonomicsAssociation2009)Figure1.1Asimpleworksystem.Peopleinteractwithmachinestoturninputsintooutputs.Systemcapacityreferstoamountofinputthatcanbeprocessedovertime.Productivityreferstotheratioofoutputstoinputs.Efficientsystemsminimiseby-productsofallkinds(E=localenvironment,M=machine,H=humanoperator).FiveAspectsofErgonomicsSafety-Medicinebottles:Theprintonthemcouldbelargersothatasickpersonwhomayhavebadvision(duetosinuses,etc.)canmoreeasilyseethedosagesandlabel.Ergonomicscoulddesigntheprintstyle,colorandsizeforoptimalviewing.Comfort-Alarmclockdisplay:Somedisplaysareharshlybright,drawingone’seyetothelightwhensurroundingsaredark.Ergonomicprinciplescouldre-designthisbasedoncontrastprinciples.Easeofuse-StreetSigns:Inastrangearea,manytimesitisdifficulttospotstreetsigns.Thiscouldbeaddressedwiththeprinciplesofvisualdetectioninergonomics.FiveaspectsofergonomicsProductivity/performance-HDTV:ThesoundonHDTVismuchlowerthanregularTV.SowhenyouswitchfromHDtoregular,thevolumeincreasesdramatically.Ergonomicsrecognizesthatthisdifferenceindecibellevelcreatesadifferenceinloudnessandhurtshumanearsandthiscouldbesolvedbyeveningoutthedecibellevels.Aesthetics-thelookandfeeloftheobject,theuserexperience.HistoryAncientGreece-Helleniccivilizationinthe5thcenturyBCusedergonomicprinciplesinthedesignoftheirtools,jobs,andworkplaces.

Hippocrates

gavedescribedhowasurgeon'sworkplaceshouldbedesignedWojciechJastrz?bowski(polishbiologist)first

usedtheword“ergonomics”inhis1857articleRysergonomjiczylinaukiopracy,opartejnaprawdachpoczerpni?tychzNaukiPrzyrody(TheOutlineofErgonomics,i.e.ScienceofWork,BasedontheTruthsTakenfromtheNaturalScience).FrederickWinslowTaylorpioneeredthe"ScientificManagement"method,whichproposedawaytofindtheoptimummethodforcarryingoutagiventaskintheearly19thcentury.FrankandLillianGilbrethexpandedTaylor'smethodsintheearly1900stodevelop"TimeandMotionStudies".Theyaimedtoimproveefficiencybyeliminatingunnecessarystepsandactionswhichincreasethebricklayer’sproductivityfrom120to350bricksperhour.WorldWarIImarkedthedevelopmentofnewandcomplexmachinesandweaponry,Itwasobservedthatfullyfunctionalaircraft,flownbythebest-trainedpilots,stillcrashed.In1943,AlphonseChapanis,alieutenantintheU.S.Army,showedthatthisso-called"piloterror"couldbegreatlyreducedwhenmorelogicalanddifferentiablecontrolsreplacedconfusingdesignsinairplanecockpits.HistoryInthedecadessincethewar,ergonomicshascontinuedtoflourishanddiversify.TheSpaceAge

creatednewhumanfactorsissuessuchasweightlessnessandextremeg-forces.ThedawnoftheInformationAgehasresultedinthenewergonomicsfieldofhuman-computerinteraction(HCI).Likewise,thegrowingdemandforandcompetitionamongconsumergoodsandelectronicshasresultedinhumanfactorsinproductdesign.DomainsPhysicalergonomics:isconcernedwithhumananatomical,anthropometric,physiologicalandbiomechanicalcharacteristicsastheyrelatetophysicalactivity.(workingpostures,materialshandling,repetitivemovements,workrelatedmusculoskeletaldisordersetc.)ErgonomicMultilockOfficeAirMeshSeriesDeskChair-W81Cognitiveergonomics:isconcernedwithmentalprocesses,suchasperception,memory,reasoning,andmotorresponse,astheyaffectinteractionsamonghumansandotherelementsofasystem.(mentalworkload,decision-making,skilledperformance,human-computerinteraction,humanreliabilityetc.)TheoreticalFrameworkforHCIOrganizationalergonomics:isconcernedwiththeoptimizationofsociotechnicalsystems,includingtheirorganizationalstructures,policies,andprocesses.(Relevanttopicsincludecommunication,workdesign,designofworkingtimes,participatorydesign,communityergonomics,cooperativeworketc.)ApplicationSEATINGANDPOSTUREFORTYPICALOFFICETASKS1SEATBACKADJUSTABILTY2GOODLUMBARSUPPORT3SEATHEIGHTADJUSTABILITY4NOEXCESSPRESSUREONUNDERSIDEOFTHIGHSANDBACKSOFKNEES5FOOTSUPPORTIFNEEDED6SPACEFORPOSTURALCHANGE,NOOBSTACLESUNDERDESK7FOREARMSAPPROXIMATELYHORIZONTAL8MINIMALEXTENSION,FLEXIONORDEVIATIONOFWRISTS9SCREENHEIGHTANDANGLESHOULDALLOWCOMFORTABLEHEADPOSITION10SPACEINFRONTOFKEYBOARDTOSUPPORTHANDS/WRISTSDURINGPAUSESINKEYINGErgonomicsintheworkplaceErgonomicsisthescienceofdesigningthejob,equipment,andworkplacetofittheworker.Properergonomicdesignisnecessarytopreventrepetitivestraininjuries,whichcandevelopovertimeandcanleadtolong-termdisability.Thefourmaincontributingcausesoftheseinjuriesarequick,repetitiveactions,awkwardposition,useofforce,andlackofrest.Minimizationofrepetitivetasksandawkwardbodypositionscanhelptopreventsuchinjuriesfromoccurring.Whatarecommonergonomicriskfactors?RepetitionAwkwardBodyPosturesForceContactStressVibrationHeatCommonSymptomspainnumbnessandtinglingstiffnessorcrampinginabilitytoholdobjectsorlossofgripstrengthCumulativeTraumaDisorders

PreventionGoodbodypostureEngineeringcontrolsAdministrativeControlsJobenlargementJobrotationWorkbreaksTraining.FigureSeparatebanksofkeysforeachhandmayrelievewriststrain.Whatareindividualsresponsibilities?FacultyandStaffParticipateinergonomicstrainingandproblem-solving.Implementergonomicrecommendations.Choosetools,furniture,andequipmentthatfityourjobtasksandyourbody.Listentoyourbodyandadjustyourworkstationfurnitureandaccessoriestosupportcomfortablepostures.Thinkbeforeyoulift,gethelpifnecessary,andfollowsafeliftingguidelines.Varyyourjobtasksthroughouttheday,takefrequentshortstretchbreakswhenperforminghighlyrepetitivetasks,andperformsimplestretches.Exercise,includingwalkingandclimbingstairs,tobuildstaminaandmuscletone.Reportwork-relatedinjuriestoyoursupervisorpromptly.SupervisorsLearnaboutergonomicriskfactorsandhowtopreventthem.Provideergonomicstrainingandencourageinputinergonomicproblem-solving.Supportyourdepartment'scomputerworkstationevaluator.ContactthecampusErgonomicsSpecialistforaworksiteassessmentofnon-computerjobsinvolvingergonomicriskfactors.Provideergonomicworkstationfurnitureandtools.Promotefrequent,shortrestbreaksandalternativeworkactivitiesforstaffperforminghighlyrepetitivetasks.Encouragestafftoreportsymptomsearly.Sendinjuredemployeesformedicaltreatment,reportinjuriespromptly,andimplementworkrestrictionsandworkplacemodifications.Seekassistanceonergonomicissuesfromcampusresourceswhennecessary.SustainableDesignChartAnalysisFigure.2.1WorldoilproductionFigure2.2AnnualFossil-FuelEmissionsInmanypastsituations,environmentaleffectswereignoredduringthedesignstagefornewproductsandprocesses.Hazardouswastesweredumpedinthemostconvenientfashionpossible,ignoringpossibleenvironmentaldamage.Inefficientenergyuseresultedinhighoperatingcosts.Wastewascommoninmaterialproduction,manufacturinganddistribution.Consumerscastasideproducts,usuallywithonlyminimalre-manufacturingorrecycling.Whatis“Greendesign”?Greendesignisthedesignofaproducttominimiseitsenvironmentalimpactsoveritsentirelifetimeandtomeetcustomerrequirements

3915Theelementsofalife-cycleinventoryanalysisMaterialsacquisitionProductdistributionProductuseRecycle:Products,components,materialsWastemanagementMaterialsEnergyAirWaterFormulation,processing,andmanufacturingPrincipalproductsCo-productsWatereffluentsAirborneemissionsSolidWasteOtherenvironmentalinteractions

41Figure1.TheShifttoSustainableDesign*GeneralgoalsforgreendesignReduceorminimizetheuseofnon-renewableresourcesManagerenewableresourcestoinsuresustainability;Reduce,withtheultimategoalofeliminating,toxicandotherwiseharmfulemissionstotheenvironment,includingemissionscontributingtoglobalwarming.Uselessmaterial**UsematerialswithlessenvironmentalimpactUsefewerresourcesProducelesspollutionandwasteReducetheimpactsofdistributionOptimisefunctionalityandservicelifeMakere-useandrecyclingeasierReducetheenvironmentalimpactofdisposal

Keyenvironmentalconsiderations*SystemsThinkingEnvironmentalLifeCycleAssessment(LCA)isatechniquefortracingoutalltheenvironmentaleffectsandresourceneedsofanewproductorprocessthroughthematerialsuppliers,throughmanufacture,useanddisposalMaterialFlowsandCyclesisatechniquefortracingmaterialuseandlocationovertime.

Intracingmaterialsflows,itisimportanttobeclearabouttheboundariesofanalysisandtheuncertaintyofmassmeasurements.*SustainableProductDesignFivefactorshavebeenidentifiedforperfectsustainableproductdesign.CyclicSolarSafeEfficientSocialMinimisingWasteProductionWasteislostprofit.Thefourr’scanhelpreducewaste.ReduceReuseRecycleRecoverReduceReducetheamountofmaterialsusedfortheproduct.Reducetheamountofmaterialsusedforthepackaging.Canbedonebyusing:Lighterweightofmater